View source for Microdosing-of-synthetic-fertilizer

<div>
 <div class="title"><h3>4.17 - Microdosing of synthetic fertilizers</h1><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Dylan P. Harding, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.17.jpeg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Harding,DP. (2022) Microdosing of synthetic fertilizers. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<div>
 <div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
 <div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
      <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
          <p>Soil fertility is often the limiting factor on crop productivity. Where fertilizer is available, yield-maximizing application rates are rarely practical for many small scale farmers. However, by applying even very small quantities of fertilizer, significant returns can be realized on the investment when soil fertility is extremely lacking. The practice of fertilizer “micro-dosing” has been investigated as a method of maximizing the return on fertilizer investment by maximizing crop uptake.</p>

<p>In the practice of micro-dosing, small quantities of synthetic fertilizer are applied to the soil surface directly surrounding individual plants or buried with the seed in “micro-doses” of up to about 6 grams measured using a beer or Coca cola bottle cap. This technique is an alternative to the more commonly practiced broadcast method of fertilizer application, in which fertilizer or a mixture of fertilizer and seed, is spread over the field. The theory behind micro-dosing is that low rates of fertilizer can be most efficiently applied by minimizing the distance between the fertilizer and the root system.  This is thought to be beneficial for both mobile and immobile nutrients which can either be lost before they reach the root system (Zhang et al., 2010) or remain fixed in a field area that crop roots will not access in early stages of growth (Eghball & Sander, 1989; Zhang et al., 2010), respectively. Additionally, direct placement of fertilizer to seeds and seedlings has been observed to stimulate early root growth and subsequent nutrient uptake (Zhang et al., 2010).</p>

<p>When a high rate of nitrogen fertilizer in the form of urea (210 kg N/ ha) was applied onto corn, nitrogen uptake efficiency did not significantly vary between broadcast and seed-placed application (Rees et al., 1997). It should be noted however the recovery of applied N was fairly low (< 30%) for all trials in this study (Rees et al., 1997).  Nitrogen recovery could potentially be improved at lower application rates by combining micro-dosing techniques with interventions to improve nutrient retention such as adding manure (Ncube, Dimes, Twomlow, Mupangwa, & Giller, 2007). </p>

<p>It should be noted that micro-dose fertilizer application is more time consuming than broadcast application. Despite this drawback, enhanced nutrient uptake can justify the increased labour requirement in situations where yield maximizing fertilizer application is not practical. In the comparison of these two methods on pearl millet in Sadoré, Niger, it was found that the yields achieved with a micro-dose application of 7 kg P/ ha were 88% of those achieved with a 13 kg/ ha broadcast application, indicating that comparable yields can be achieved with much less fertilizer using micro-dose application techniques (Muehlig-Versen, Buerkert, Bationo, & Roemheld, 2003). This study also found phosphorus use efficiency to be increased with seed placed phosphorus application over broadcast phosphorus application (Muehlig-Versen et al., 2003). In another micro-dosing study performed over 4 field seasons on pearl millet in Mali, Burkino Faso, and Niger, low micro-doses of NPK fertilizers were observed to significantly increase grain and stover yield compared to trials where no fertilizer was applied (Bagayoko et al., 2011). Though the micro-dose yields realized in this study were lower than those associated with higher doses of broadcast fertilizer (Bagayoko et al., 2011), micro-dosing was likely more cost effective.</p> 
<p>The key lesson to emerge from field trials in Africa using various crops (pearl millet, sorghum, cowpea, groundnut, sesame) is that even very small amounts of fertilizer, where needed, when applied using the micro-dosing technique, can significantly increase crop yields in nutrient poor soils (Aune, Doumbia, & Berthe, 2007; Buerkert, Bationo, & Piepho, 2001; Hayashi, Abdoulaye, Gerard, & Bationo, 2008; Ousman & Aune, 2011). Furthermore, and of critical importance to poor farmers, was that the value to cost ratio (yield increase per unit of expenditure) of fertilizer investment increased by up to 70% when micro-dosing was employed compared to broadcasting (Muehlig-Versen et al., 2003). Highly positive value to cost ratios have also been realized in the comparison of micro-dose fertilization to unfertilized controls in multiple trials, especially for fertilizer doses of under 1 gram per hill (Aune et al., 2007; Ousman & Aune, 2011).</p> 

<p>Micro-dose fertilizer application may not be practical at planting time because of labour constraints, high early-season cost or fertilizer unavailability. To address this reality, the effect of delayed micro-dose application to millet (variety is unclear) was investigated by Hayashi et al. (2008). 6 g micro-doses of 15-15-15 fertilizer were employed in this study. It was shown that although yields were maximized when fertilizer was applied at planting time, yield improvement in comparison to unfertilized crops could be realized even 45 days after sowing (Hayashi et al., 2008). </p>
 </div>
   </div>
    <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Other Challenges</h3>
        <div class="cont-bg"></h3>
      <p>It should be kept in mind that fertilizer micro-dosing will only be effective if nutrients that would otherwise be limiting factors on the growth of a plant are applied, so a prior soil nutrient test can be helpful if available. Additionally, synthetic fertilizer must be available to the farmer in some quantity. This technique is more time consuming than broadcast fertilizer application and this may pose a barrier to adoption in some communities. It is not clear that crops requiring high doses of a nutrient (e.g. nitrogen for corn) would significantly benefit from low micro-doses of that nutrient. Finally, it should be noted that germination has been shown to be inhibited by the presence of seed-placed fertilizer, especially in moisture limiting conditions (Muehlig-Versen et al., 2003). In situations where limited moisture at planting time is a reality, fertilizer should be placed near to the seed but not in direct contact with it.</p>

          <p>Along with the different materials gloves are made of, there are also different arm lengths. Some gloves are cut off just in front or around the wrist. While others can be up to and over the elbow and everywhere in between (Melco, 2016). The benefits of the shorter gloves is comfort, no bunching around wrist or elbow, and they can be quickly put on or removed. The benefits of the long gloves are more protection, the entire forearm will be covered. All the while there is less of a chance of getting debris in their gloves because the opening is farther away from what you are working with. Farmers can also work in deeper water or mud with the long rubber gloves without getting your hands wet.</p>
</div>
   </div>
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
        <div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:003.jpg|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p> 
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.17:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.17_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.17:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.17e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.17:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.17subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 5.17:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/5.17latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 4.14:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.14n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. </i></p>

     </div>
   </div>
  <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Further Reading and Links for Practical Tips </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
          <p>[ICRISAT Micro-dosing Manual: http://www.icrisat.org/impacts/impact-stories/icrisat-is-fertilizer-microdosing.pdf]</p>
          <p>[ICRISAT Micro-dosing Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c4-AB1jg3Sg]</p>
      <div>    
   </div>
   <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
          <p>1.Abbasi, M. K., Tahir, M. M., & Rahim, N. (2013). Effect of N fertilizer source and timing on yield and N use efficiency of rainfed maize (Zea mays L.) in Kashmir-Pakistan. Geoderma, 195, 87-93.</p> 
<p>2.Antolin, M. C., Yoller, J., & Sanchezdiaz, M. (1995). EFFECTS OF TEMPORARY DROUGHT ON NITRATE-FED AND NITROGEN-FIXING ALFALFA PLANTS. Plant Science, 107(2), 159-165. doi: 10.1016/0168-9452(95)04108-7</p>
<p>3.Arancon, N. Q., Lee, S., Edwards, C. A., & Atiyeh, R. (2003). Effects of humic acids derived from cattle, food and paper-waste vermicomposts on growth of greenhouse plants. Pedobiologia, 47(5-6), 741-744. doi: 10.1016/s0031-4056(04)70262-0</p>
<p>4.Aune, Jens B., Doumbia, Mamadou, & Berthe, Abou. (2007). Microfertilizing sorghum and pearl millet in Mali - Agronomic, economic and social feasibility. Outlook on Agriculture, 36(3), 199-203. </p>
<p>5.Aune, Jens B., & Ousman, Abdelrahman. (2011). EFFECT OF SEED PRIMING AND MICRO-DOSING OF FERTILIZER ON SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET IN WESTERN SUDAN. Experimental Agriculture, 47(3), 419-430. doi: 10.1017/s0014479711000056</p>
<p>6.Badruzzaman, M., Pinzon, J., Oppenheimer, J., & Jacangelo, J. G. (2012). Sources of nutrients impacting surface waters in Florida: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 109, 80-92. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.04.040.</p>
<p>7.Bagayoko, M., Maman, N., Pale, S., Sirifi, S., Taonda, S. J. B., Traore, S., & Mason, S. C. (2011). Microdose and N and P fertilizer application rates for pearl millet in West Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(5), 1141-1150.</p> 
<p>8.Bailey, J. S., & Laidlaw, A. S. (1999). The interactive effects of phosphorus, potassium, lime and molybdenum on the growth and morphology of white clover (Trifolium repens L.) at establishment. Grass and Forage Science, 54(1), 69-76. </p>
<p>9.Bambara, Sylvie, & Ndakidemi, Patrick A. (2010). Phaseolus vulgaris response to Rhizobium inoculation, lime and molybdenum in selected low pH soil in Western Cape, South Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 5(14), 1804-1811.</p> 
<p>10.Bhattacharya, S. S., & Chattopadhyay, G. N. (2002). Increasing bioavailability of phosphorus from fly ash through vermicomposting. Journal of Environmental Quality, 31(6), 2116-2119.</p>
<p>11.Bonilla, Ildefonso, & Bolanos, Luis. (2009). Mineral Nutrition for Legume-Rhizobia Symbiosis: B, Ca, N, P, S, K, Fe, Mo, Co, and Ni: A Review (Vol. 1)</p>
<p>12.Brenchley, W. E. (1948). THE TOXIC ACTION OF MOLYBDENUM IN RELATION TO SOILS AND CROPS. Annals of Applied Biology, 35(2), 139-&. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7348.1948.tb07358.x.</p>
<p>13.Buerkert, A., Bationo, A., & Piepho, H. P. (2001). Efficient phosphorus application strategies for increased crop production in sub-Saharan West Africa. Field Crops Research, 72(1), 1-15. doi: 10.1016/s0378-4290(01)00166-6.</p>
<p>14.Chahal, V. P. S., & Chahal, P. P. K. (1991). INTERACTION STUDIES BETWEEN RHIZOBIUM-LEGUMINOSARUM AND MELOIDOGYNE-INCOGNITA ON PEA (PISUM-SATIVUM L) GROWN UNDER DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS OF MOLYBDENUM (Vol. 45). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publ.</p>
<p>15.Chianu, Jonas N., Nkonya, E. M., Mairura, F. S., Chianu, Justina N., & Akinnifesi, F. K. (2011). Biological Nitrogen Fixation and Socioeconomic Factors for Legume Production in Sub-Saharan Africa.</p>
<p>16.Eghball, B., & Sander, D. H. (1989). DISTANCE AND DISTRIBUTION EFFECTS OF PHOSPHORUS-FERTILIZER ON CORN. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 53(1), 282-287. </p>
<p>17.El-Akhal, M. R., Rincon, A., Coba de la Pena, T., Lucas, M. M., El Mourabit, N., Barrijal, S., & Pueyo, J. J. (2013). Effects of salt stress and rhizobial inoculation on growth and nitrogen fixation of three peanut cultivars. Plant biology (Stuttgart, Germany), 15(2), 415-421. doi: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2012.00634.x</p>
<p>18.El-Bably, A. Z. (2002). Effect of irrigation and nutrition of copper and molybdenum on Egyptian clover (Trifolium alexandrnium L.). Agronomy Journal, 94(5), 1066-1070.</p> 
<p>19.Faber, B. A., Downer, A. J., Holstege, D., & Mochizuki, M. J. (2007). Accuracy Varies for Commercially Available Soil Test Kits Analyzing Nitrate-Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, and pH. HortTechnology., 17(3), 358-362.</p> 
<p>20.Franco, A. A., & Munns, D. N. (1981). RESPONSE OF PHASEOLUS-VULGARIS L TO MOLYBDENUM UNDER ACID CONDITIONS. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 45(6), 1144-1148.</p> 
<p>21.Frechilla, S., Gonzalez, E. M., Royuela, M., Minchin, F. R., Aparicio-Tejo, P. M., & Arrese-Igor, C. (2000). Source of nitrogen nutrition (nitrogen fixation or nitrate assimilation) is a major factor involved in pea response to moderate water stress. Journal of Plant Physiology, 157(6), 609-617.</p> 
<p>22.Garg, N., & Chandel, S. (2011). The Effects of Salinity on Nitrogen Fixation and Trehalose Metabolism in Mycorrhizal Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp Plants. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 30(4), 490-503. doi: 10.1007/s00344-011-9211-2.</p>
<p>23.Giller, K. E., Murwira, M. S., Dhliwayo, D. K. C., Mafongoya, P. L., & Mpepereki, S. (2011). Soyabeans and sustainable agriculture in southern Africa. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 9(1), 50-58. doi: 10.3763/ijas.2010.0548.</p>
<p>24.Guimaraes, A. A., Jaramillo, P. M. D., Nobrega, R. S. A., Florentino, L. A., Silva, K. B., & Moreira, F. M. D. (2012). Genetic and Symbiotic Diversity of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Isolated from Agricultural Soils in the Western Amazon by Using Cowpea as the Trap Plant. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 78(18), 6726-6733. doi: 10.1128/aem.01303-12.</p>
<p>25.Hafner, H., Ndunguru, B. J., Bationo, A., & Marschner, H. (1992). EFFECT OF NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS AND MOLYBDENUM APPLICATION ON GROWTH AND SYMBIOTIC N2-FIXATION OF GROUNDNUT IN AN ACID SANDY SOIL IN NIGER. Fertilizer Research, 31(1), 69-77. doi: 10.1007/bf01064229.</p>
<p>26.Hayashi, K., Abdoulaye, T., Gerard, B., & Bationo, A. (2008). Evaluation of application timing in fertilizer micro-dosing technology on millet production in Niger, West Africa. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 80(3), 257-265. doi: 10.1007/s10705-007-9141-3.</p>
<p>27.Johansen, C., Musa, A. M., Kumar Rao, J.V.D.K., Harris, D., Ali, M.Y., & Lauren, J.G. . (2005). Molybdenum response of chickpea in the High Barind Tract (HBT) of Bangladesh and in Eastern India. Micronutrients in South and South East Asia, 205-220.</p> 
<p>28.Jones, D. L., & Darrah, P. R. (1993). INFLUX AND EFFLUX OF AMINO-ACIDS FROM ZEA-MAYS L ROOTS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR N-NUTRITION AND THE RHIZOSPHERE. Plant and Soil, 155, 87-90. doi: 10.1007/bf00024990.</p>
<p>29.Jongruaysup, S., Dell, B., Bell, R. W., Ohara, G. W., & Bradley, J. S. (1997). Effect of molybdenum and inorganic nitrogen on molybdenum redistribution in black gram (Vigna mungo L Hepper) with particular reference to seed fill. Annals of Botany, 79(1), 67-74. doi: 10.1006/anbo.1996.0304.</p>
<p>30.Khan, Modabber Ahmed, Kim, Ki-wook, Mingzhi, Wang, Lim, Bu-kug, Lee, Weon-hee, & Lee, Jong-yoon. (2008). Nutrient-impregnated charcoal: an environmentally friendly slow-release fertilizer. The Environmentalist., 28(3), 231-235.</p> 
<p>31.Kirova, E., Tzvetkova, N., Vaseva, I., & Ignatov, G. (2008). Photosynthetic responses of nitrate-fed and nitrogen-fixing soybeans to progressive water stress. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 31(3), 445-458. doi: 10.1080/01904160801894988.</p>
<p>32.Li, S. Y., Zhao, B. R., Yuan, D. Y., Duan, M. J., Qian, Q., Tang, L., . . . Li, C. Y. (2013). Rice zinc finger protein DST enhances grain production through controlling Gn1a/OsCKX2 expression. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(8), 3167-3172. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1300359110.</p>
<p>33.Lodeiro, A. R., Gonzalez, P., Hernandez, A., Balague, L. J., & Favelukes, G. (2000). Comparison of drought tolerance in nitrogen-fixing and inorganic nitrogen-grown common beans. Plant Science, 154(1), 31-41. doi: 10.1016/s0168-9452(99)00246-0.</p>
<p>34.Lopez, Roxana S., Alvear, Marysol, Gianfreda, Liliana, & Mora, Maria de la Luz. (2007). Molybdenum availability in andisols and its effect on biological parameters of soil and red clover (Trifolium Pratense L.). Soil Science, 172(11), 913-924. doi: 10.1097/ss.ObO13e3181546538.</p>
<p>35.Lotter, Don. (2010). Making Connections To Healthy Soils, Sustainable Agriculture in East Africa. BioCycle, 51(10), 44-45.</p> 
<p>36.Mahajan, A, Gupta, R. D. . (2009). Components of INM System: Springer, Po Box 17, 3300 Aa Dordrecht, Netherlands.</p>
<p>37.Mainoo, N. O. K., Whalen, J. K., & Barrington, S. (2008). Earthworm abundance related to soil physicochemical and microbial properties in Accra, Ghana. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 3(3), 186-194. </p>
<p>38.Mandal, B., Pal, S., & Mandal, L. N. (1998). Effect of molybdenum, phosphorus, and lime application to acid soils on dry matter yield and molybdenum nutrition of lentil. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 21(1), 139-147. doi: 10.1080/01904169809365388.</p>
<p>39.Mathu, S., Herrmann, L., Pypers, P., Matiru, V., Mwirichia, R., & Lesueur, D. (2012). Potential of indigenous bradyrhizobia versus commercial inoculants to improve cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. walp.) and green gram (Vigna radiata L. wilczek.) yields in Kenya. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 58(6), 750-763. doi: 10.1080/00380768.2012.741041.</p>
<p>40.McKenzie, R. M. (1966). The relation of laboratory analyses for copper, zinc, and molybdenum in some Victorian soils to the results of field trials. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, 6(May 1966), 170-174.</p> 
<p>41.Mohammed, Y. A., Kelly, J., Chim, B. K., Rutto, E., Waldschmidt, K., Mullock, J., . . . Raun, W. (2013). NITROGEN FERTILIZER MANAGEMENT FOR IMPROVED GRAIN QUALITY AND YIELD IN WINTER WHEAT IN OKLAHOMA. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 36(5), 749-761. doi: 10.1080/01904167.2012.754039.</p>
<p>42.Mpepereki, S., Javaheri, F., Davis, P., & Giller, K. E. (2000). Soyabeans and sustainable agriculture - Promiscuous soyabeans in southern Africa. Field Crops Research, 65(2-3), 137-149. doi: 10.1016/s0378-4290(99)00083-0.</p>
<p>43.Muehlig-Versen, B., Buerkert, A., Bationo, A., & Roemheld, V. (2003). Phosphorus placement on acid arenosols of the west African Sahel. Experimental Agriculture, 39(3), 307-325. doi: 10.1017/s0014479703001261.</p>
<p>44.Ncube, B., Dimes, J. P., Twomlow, S. J., Mupangwa, W., & Giller, K. E. (2007). Raising the productivity of smallholder farms under semi-arid conditions by use of small doses of manure and nitrogen: a case of participatory research. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 77(1), 53-67. doi: 10.1007/s10705-006-9045-7.</p>
<p>45.Ndegwa, P. M., Thompson, S. A., & Das, K. C. (2000). Effects of stocking density and feeding rate on vermicomposting of biosolids. Bioresource Technology, 71(1), 5-12. doi: 10.1016/s0960-8524(99)00055-3.</p>
<p>46.Notario Del Pino, J. S., Arteaga Padron, I. J., Gonzalez Martin, M. M., & Garcia Hernandez, J. E. (1995). Phosphorus and potassium release from phillipsite-based slow-release fertilizers. Journal of Controlled Release, 34(1), 25-29. doi: 10.1016/0168-3659(94)00116-c.</p>
<p>47.Ousman, Abdelrahman, & Aune, Jens B. (2011). EFFECT OF SEED PRIMING AND MICRO-DOSING OF FERTILIZER ON GROUNDNUT, SESAME AND COWPEA IN WESTERN SUDAN. Experimental Agriculture, 47(3), 431-443. doi: 10.1017/s0014479711000068.</p>
<p>48.Parker, M. B., & Harris, H. B. (1977). YIELD AND LEAF NITROGEN OF NODULATING AND NON-NODULATING SOYBEANS AS AFFECTED BY NITROGEN AND MOLYBDENUM. Agronomy Journal, 69(4), 551-554. </p>
<p>49.Quaggio, J. A., Gallo, P. B., Owino-Gerroh, C., Abreu, M. F., & Cantarella, H. (2004). Peanut response to lime and molybdenum application in low pH soils. Revista Brasileira De Ciencia Do Solo, 28(4), 659-664.</p> 
<p>50.Rao, B. K. Rajashekhara, Krishnappa, K., Srinivasarao, C., Wani, S. P., Sahrawat, K. L., & Pardhasaradhi, G. (2012). Alleviation of Multinutrient Deficiency for Productivity Enhancement of Rain-Fed Soybean and Finger Millet in the Semi-arid Region of India. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 43(10), 1427-1435. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2012.670344.</p>
<p>51.Rao, B. K. Rajashekhara, Srinivasarao, C., Sahrawat, K. L., & Wani, S. P. (2010). Evaluation of Stratification Criteria for Regional Assessment of Soil Chemical Fertility Parameters in Semi-arid Tropical India. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 41(17), 2100-2108. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2010.498539.</p>
<p>52.Rao, D. L. N., Giller, K. E., Yeo, A. R., & Flowers, T. J. (2002). The effects of salinity and sodicity upon nodulation and nitrogen fixation in chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Annals of Botany, 89(5), 563-570. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcf097.</p>
<p>.Rashid, A., Qureshi, R. H., Hollington, P. A., & Wyn Jones, R. G. (1999). Comparative responses of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars to salinity at the seedling stage. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 182 (3) pp. 199-207, 1999.</p> 
<p>54.Rees, R. M., Baddeley, J. A., Bhogal, A., Ball, B. C., Chadwick, D. R., Macleod, M., . . . Williams, J. R. (2013). Nitrous oxide mitigation in UK agriculture. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 59(1), 3-15. doi: 10.1080/00380768.2012.733869.</p>
<p>55.Rees, R. M., Roelcke, M., Li, S. X., Wang, X. Q., Li, S. Q., Stockdale, E. A., . . . Richter, J. (1997). The effect of fertilizer placement on nitrogen uptake and yield of wheat and maize in Chinese loess soils. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 47(1), 81-91.</p> 
<p>56.Rego, Thomas J., Sahrawat, Kanwar L., Wani, Suhas P., & Pardhasaradhi, Gazula. (2007). Widespread deficiencies of sulfur, boron, and zinc in Indian semi-arid tropical soils: On-farm crop responses. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 30(10-12), 1569-1583. doi: 10.1080/01904160701615475.</p>
<p>57.Reinecke, A. J., & Albert, J. N. (1994). Earthworm research in southern Africa since W. Michaelsen, with emphasis on the utilization of the earthworm (Eisenia fetida) as a protein source. Mitteilungen aus dem Hamburgischen Zoologischen Museum und Institut, 89(SUPPL. 2), 23-36. </p>
<p>58.Reinecke, A. J., Viljoen, S. A., & Saayman, R. J. (1992). THE SUITABILITY OF EUDRILUS-EUGENIAE, PERIONYX-EXCAVATUS AND EISENIA-FOETIDA (OLIGOCHAETA) FOR VERMICOMPOSTING IN SOUTHERN AFRICA IN TERMS OF THEIR TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 24(12), 1295-1307. doi: 10.1016/0038-0717(92)90109-b</p>
<p>59.Rhodes, E. R., & Kpaka, M. (1982). EFFECTS OF NITROGEN, MOLYBDENUM AND CULTIVAR ON COWPEA GROWTH AND YIELD ON AN OXISOL. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 13(4), 279-283. doi: 10.1080/00103628209367267</p>
<p>60.Rosolem, C. A., & Caires, E. F. (1998). Yield and nitrogen uptake of peanuts as affected by lime, cobalt, and molybdenum. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 21(5), 827-835. doi: 10.1080/01904169809365446.</p>
<p>61.Sahrawat, K. L., Wani, S. P., Pardhasaradhi, G., & Murthy, K. V. S. (2010). Diagnosis of Secondary and Micronutrient Deficiencies and Their Management in Rainfed Agroecosystems: Case Study from Indian Semi-arid Tropics. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 41(3), 346-360. doi: 10.1080/00103620903462340</p>
<p>62.Schnier, H. F., Dedatta, S. K., Mengel, K., Marqueses, E. P., & Faronilo, J. E. (1988). NITROGEN USE EFFICIENCY, FLOODWATER PROPERTIES, AND N-15 BALANCE IN TRANSPLANTED LOWLAND RICE AS AFFECTED BY LIQUID UREA BAND PLACEMENT. Fertilizer Research, 16(3), 241-255. doi: 10.1007/bf01051374.</p>
<p>63.Srinivasarao, Ch, Wani, S. P., Sahrawat, K. L., Rego, T. J., & Pardhasaradhi, G. (2008). Zinc, boron and sulphur deficiencies are holding back the potential of rainfed crops in semi-arid India: Experiences from participatory watershed management. International Journal of Plant Production, 2(1), 89-99.</p> 
<p>64.Sun, Z. J., Liu, X. C., Sun, L. H., & Song, C. Y. (1997). Earthworm as a potential protein resource. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 36(2-4), 221-236. </p>
<p>65.Suthar, Surindra. (2009). Bioremediation of Agricultural Wastes through Vermicomposting. Bioremediation Journal, 13(1), 21-28. doi: 10.1080/10889860802690513.</p>
<p>66.Togay, Yesim, Togay, Necat, & Dogan, Yusuf. (2008). Research on the effect of phosphorus and molybdenum applications on the yield and yield parameters in lentil (Lens culinaris Medic.). African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(9), 1256-1260.</p> 
<p>67.Ventorino, V., Caputo, R., De Pascale, S., Fagnano, M., Pepe, O., & Moschetti, G. (2012). Response to salinity stress of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae strains in the presence of different legume host plants. Annals of Microbiology, 62(2), 811-823. doi: 10.1007/s13213-011-0322-6.</p>
<p>68.Vieira, R. F., Cardoso, Ejbn, Vieira, C., & Cassini, S. T. A. (1998). Foliar application of molybdenum in common beans. I. Nitrogenase and reductase activities in a soil of high fertility. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 21(1), 169-180. doi: 10.1080/01904169809365391.</p>
<p>69.Vistoso, Erika M., Alfaro, Marta, & Mora, M. L. (2012). Role of Molybdenum on Yield, Quality, and Photosynthetic Efficiency of White Clover as a Result of the Interaction with Liming and Different Phosphorus Rates in Andisols. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 43(18), 2342-2357. doi: 10.1080/00103624.2012.708078.</p>
<p>70.Warren, Charles R. (2013). Quaternary ammonium compounds can be abundant in some soils and are taken up as intact molecules by plants. The New phytologist, 198(2), 476-485. doi: 10.1111/nph.12171.</p>
<p>71. Jerzy, Kidaj, Dominika, Koper, Piotr, Kubik-Komar, Agnieszka, & Skorupska, Anna. (2012). The effect of biotic and physical factors on the competitive ability of Rhizobium leguminosarum. Central European Journal of Biology, 7(1), 13-24. doi: 10.2478/s11535-011-0085-x.</p>
<p>72.Zebarth, B. J., Leclerc, Y., & Moreau, G. (2004). Rate and timing of nitrogen fertilization of Russet Burbank potato: Nitrogen use efficiency. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 84(3), 845-854.</p> 
<p>73.Zhang, Fusuo, Shen, Jianbo, Zhang, Junling, Zuo, Yuanmei, Li, Long, & Chen, Xinping. (2010). RHIZOSPHERE PROCESSES AND MANAGEMENT FOR IMPROVING NUTRIENT USE EFFICIENCY AND CROP PRODUCTIVITY: IMPLICATIONS FOR CHINA. In D. L. Sparks (Ed.), Advances in Agronomy, Vol 107 (Vol. 107, pp. 1-32).</p>
<p>74.Zhao, X. Q., Guo, S. W., Shinmachi, F., Sunairi, M., Noguchi, A., Hasegawa, I., & Shen, R. F. (2013). Aluminium tolerance in rice is antagonistic with nitrate preference and synergistic with ammonium preference. Annals of Botany, 111(1), 69-77. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcs234</p>
     </div>
   </div>
  </div>
 </div>
</div>