View source for Fish-hatcheries-for-small-scale-farmers

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 <div class="title"><h3>10.16 -Fish hatcheries for small scale farmers </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Owen Robinson ,University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Stocking fingerlings in a nursery pond (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
 <p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/stocking-fingerlings-nursery-pond?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Robinson,O. (2022) Fish hatcheries for small scale farmers, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Introduction </h1>
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          <p>Protein is considered the most expensive portion of the human diet (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012) while playing a vital part in facilitating growth and maturity for children (Xiong et al., 2023). Undernutrition is defined as the lack of adequate nutritional intake, caused by not consuming enough food containing substances necessary for growth and overall health (Oxford Dictionary, 2024), including protein. Protein deficiency continues to be a prevalent issue within developing countries, especially across Africa and Asia (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012). According to the World Health Organization (2023), protein-energy malnutrition has slowly declined since 2000 but still lies in the top twenty causes of mortality among Africans. About 140 out of 1000 African children are likely to die before the age of 5 due to malnutrition, with the survivors only having a life expectancy of 45 years (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012). These statistics can be decreased by increasing the quantity and quality of available protein for citizens of developing nations residing on all scales, both minor and major.</P> 
<P>Developing nations are generally limited to cereals for primary protein sources (Temba et al., 2016), while animal-based proteins have been observed to be of higher quality in terms of delivering all essential dietary amino acids (Lim et al., 2021). Among the different types of animal-based proteins, fish is typically considered the best option for maximizing protein quality and minimizing further health risks (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012).</P>
<P>Approximately 200 million Africans currently obtain high-quality protein from fish products (Obiero et al., 2019), yet it is apparent its consumption is still not fully exploited. Aquaculture, specifically, fish hatcheries have been a growing practice within Africa over the last few decades, whose contributions have gradually contributed to an increase in the continent's food security while improving the economic value of the region in which they exist (Obiero et al., 2019). However, as of today, it is still only practiced within a few African countries (Obiero et al., 2019).</P> 
<P>A fish hatchery is a place where artificial or “controlled” propagation of fish species occurs on varying scales (Fisch et al., 2015). The goal of every hatchery is to maximize the amount of fish biomass that can be produced, either for conservation purposes or as a food supply (Fisch et al., 2015). Regardless of size, fish hatcheries typically consist of several units containing water. These units can serve different purposes like larviculture, broodstock holding, water treatment, wastewater treatment, or larval rearing (Jayakumar & Nazar, 2013). During a production season, fish hatcheries require nothing less than full dedication by well-trained personnel who have developed the specialized skills necessary for the success of the operation (Jayakumar & Nazar, 2013), which may present issues in under resourced areas in developing nations. Fish hatcheries can be operated commercially; however, the literature shows small-scale operations are generally more feasible to implement successfully. This paper will assess the potential benefits and costs of improving and expanding the fish hatchery industry across Africa and Asia as a solution to combat malnutrition, undernutrition, and poverty, especially among small-scale, poor, and isolated communities. </p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Benefits of fish hatcheries</h1>
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<P>Fish hatcheries are expected to improve the overall quality of fish products compared to traditional fish farming due to several factors. First, traditional fish farming in developing nations like Laos (South-Eastern Asia) relies on the importation of fish from foreign countries (Demoulin, 1999). Commonly, the fish product undergoes extreme transportation stress, lowering its quality significantly (Demoulin, 1999). In some cases, fatalities during transportation occur, creating contaminates. This lowers the product yield acquired by the buyers (Demoulin, 1999). Fish hatcheries, both large and small-scale, would mitigate the need for transportation, improving the overall quality and quantity available for human consumption.</P> 
<P>According to Schönfeldt and Hall (2012) protein consumption follows the principle of quality over quantity. That is, consuming less, high-quality protein like fish is favorable over consuming more, lower-quality proteins like cereals in terms of preventing undernutrition and malnutrition and maintaining health (Schönfeldt & Hall, 2012). Therefore, by increasing the quality of the protein, people will need to consume less. Small-scale farmers will be able to expand the market they provide to increasing personal income and contributing to the local economy. Small-scale hatcheries not only benefit the farmers but the locals as well, as observed in Bali and Situbonda, Indonesia, where small-scale fish hatcheries make up 95% and 88% of fish hatcheries within the respective regions. In 2016, it was estimated that 4000-5000 local peoples were directly employed by the local fisheries in northern Bali alone. Furthermore, this number did not include the indirect employment possibilities associated with the construction of new hatcheries and expansion of pre-existing ones (Fachry et al., 2018). Fachry et al. (2018) assessed the average construction cost of small-scale fish hatcheries within Northern Bali and Situbonda, Indonesia, which they highlighted to be relatively low. From surveying 10 different small-scale hatcheries, this cost was determined to range from USD 4450 to USD 15,750, depending on the overall size of rearing tanks, but the labour cost would be lower in many parts of Africa due to lower labour costs. </p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">How to start a fish hatchery</h1>
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<p>These guidelines have been released by members of the FAO:</P>
<P><b>1.	Selecting a suitable location:</b></p> A hatchery should be located relatively close to an already-existing fish farm, so larvae can be easily transported on-site to provide initial stocks, or in case of emergency. Access to electricity is vital to most equipment, which can present a problem for many poor regions of Africa/Asia that frequently experience power outages. Fortunately, the installation of a standby generator is possible. Finally, the area must be on a sloped section plot to provide nursery fish at the highest point as it helps prevent water contamination and the spread of disease (Demoulin, 1999). It should be noted that if a pre-existing body of water is available, a small hatchery can be created from simple materials (Kungvankij, n.d.).</p> 
<P><b>2.	Choosing the desired species:</b></p> Smallholder farmers will want to select a species of fish with high resistance to environmental stressors that are, preferably, native to the region. For example, farmers in Africa should acquire an initial stock of Tilapia, while those in Asia should acquire some species of common carp. These species possess high resistance to oxygen deprivation, water pollution, and disease, while only requiring a year to become sexually active (Demoulin, 1999).</p>  
<P><b>3.	Size of hatchery:</b></p> This is determined by the intended production target and the survival rate of selected species, see Figure 1. 
<p>•	Hatching troughs: A length and width of 35 cm is adequate for most species of fish (Osbourne, n.d.).</p> 
<p>•	Holding tanks: It is recommended that these tanks be rectangular, with a depth of 1-2.5 m, and a width of 20 m (Demoulin, 1999). If a natural water body is being implemented, mesh and screen nets can be used to create an enclosure of this size. </p>
<p>[[File:Lan 20.jpg]]</p>
<p><b>Figure 1 represents</b></p> the required dimensions and measurements of a hypothetical fish hatchery with a production target of 2 million Seabass larvae per year (Kungvankij, n.d.).</p>
<p><b>4.	Separate Sexes:</b></p> Separation of sexes is recommended to ensure proper gonad development of females, who possess higher food requirements to reach maximum fertility. This should be done for most species including Tilapia and common carp. Separation should occur around 1.5 months after hatching before maturity is reached (Demoulin, 1999).</p>
<p><b>5.	Recirculation of Water:</b></p> This can reduce water requirements by two-thirds, which is ideal in poorer regions in Africa/Asia with less water availability (Osbourne, n.d.). </p>
<p>[[File:Lan 21.jpg]]</p>
<p>Figure 2 illustrates basic and effective design for a medium scale fish hatchery operation. (1) This image shows the breeding tank and filtration unit which separates the eggs from particles and other debris. (2) This image shows a water-storage tank in which eggs are held and checked for further contaminations before entering nursery. (3) This image shows larval hatching and nursery tank. (4) This image shows the recirculation tank where used water is filtered and cleansed. (5) This image shows a disposal tank where contaminants are removed from the system. (6a and 6b) These images show rectangular adult holding ponds – Note, one is designated for males, and the other for females. All images were taken from (Discover Agriculture, 2019). </p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Where can it work</h1>
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<p>As previously mentioned, fish hatcheries must be built on sloped or flat land, but also on compact soil (Kungvankij, n.d.). Modeling assessments carried out by the FAO determined that 37% of sub-Saharan African land meets the requirements for suitable, small-scale fish farming and hatcheries, creating the potential to strengthen food security in this region (Brummett et al., 2008). Another analysis suggested that 31% of land across Africa has suitable potential for small-scale fish hatcheries (CIFA Technical Paper 32, n.d.). <p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h1>
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<p>Literature shows that the most persistent issue in fish hatcheries is disease caused by fungi, viruses, bacteria, and parasites that commonly contaminate water (Faruk & Anka, 2017). This is especially true for regions plagued with poor water quality. Hatchery yields are especially at risk of disease operating with larvae, which have underdeveloped immune systems and are highly susceptible to infections (Faruk & Anka, 2017). Overall, the only solution to combat fish disease is maintaining healthy water quality, which is difficult to do in developing nations due to the general lack of training and equipment available. A study conducted by Nasr-Allah et al. (2014) determined that the four largest fish hatcheries in Egypt did not have access to water-quality testing kits. Therefore, disease is expected to persist in small-holder hatcheries within developing nations. 
The same hatcheries expressed concerns with the general lack of water availability during summer months, when spawning typically occurs (Nasr-Allah et al., 2014). As a result of a general lack of availability, Egypt has experienced the implementation of strict laws determining where a hatchery may be created, contributing to the slow growth of the industry across the continent (Nasr-Allah et al., 2014). Water availability is likely to be the biggest issue faced by smallholders in Africa and Southern Asia, as only 13/54 African countries possess a modest level of water security (United Nations University, 2023), and high-water scarcity experienced in Southern Asia is only predicted to increase in the future (UNICEF, n.d.).</p> 

<p>Overall, the literature shows that water quality and availability are issues that will continue to prevent the fish hatchery industry from growing within developing continents like Africa and South Asia, despite the land potential present. These problems must be mitigated before fish hatching can become an ideal and feasible strategy to reduce protein malnutrition and undernutrition significantly. </p>
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       <h1 class="title-bg">Helpful links to get started</h1>
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<p>•	https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hktQNjeDArM (Best fish for farming based on climate)</p>
<p>•	https://www.btlliners.com/designing-a-better-fish-hatchery#:~:text=Most%20modern%20hatcheries%20will%20combine,sure%20they're%20properly%20lined. (Designing better, small scale fish hatcheries). </p>
<p>•	https://www.waterprobes.com/?gclid=Cj0KCQjwwYSwBhDcARIsAOyL0fi3ymWbhG1EsOxM7cx5n6vcmaKRgYVoUEYGycM4cyZ8iNTex81DOWEaAkMAEALw_wcB (Purchasable high-quality water testing kit).</p>
<p>•	http://www.glfc.org/pubs/SpecialPubs/sp83_2/pdf/chap14.pdf  (Easy solutions to improve water quality through disinfection of diseases).</p> 
<p>•	YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOLdDsCekQY (3D animation showing simple but effective design of a fish hatchery with all required components). </p>
<p><b>FAO Manuals:</b></p> 
<p>•	https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/db4da0af-1243-5433-a4c0-c68e26f6b76e (Guidelines for implementing/improving fish hatchery management techniques - FAO)</p>
<p>•	https://www.fao.org/3/AC014E/AC014E02.htm#pII (Guidelines and helpful tips for creating small-scale fish hatchery system). 
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       <h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
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          <p>1.	CIFA Technical Paper 32. (n.d.). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/fishery/docs/CDrom/aquaculture/a0844t/docrep/W8522e/W8522E03.htm#TopOfPage</p> 
<p>2.	Demoulin, F. (1999). Guidelines for Broodstock and Hatchery Management. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/publications/card/en/c/db4da0af-1243-5433-a4c0-c68e26f6b76e</p> 
<p>3.	Discover Agriculture. (2019, July 14). Fish Farm 3D design | Fish Pond Design 3D animation | Discover Agriculture [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOLdDsCekQY</p> 
<p>4.	Faruk, M. A. R., & Anka, I. Z. (2017). An overview of diseases in fish hatcheries and nurseries. Fundamental and Applied Agriculture, 2(3), 311. https://doi.org/10.5455/faa.277539</p> 
<p>5.	Fisch, K. M., Kozfkay, C. C., Ivy, J. A., Ryder, O. A., & Waples, R. S. (2015). Fish Hatchery Genetic Management Techniques: Integrating Theory with Implementation. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 77(3), 343–357. https://doi.org/10.1080/15222055.2014.999846</p> 
<p>6.	Integrated African Health Observatory. (June 2023). What are the leading causes of death in Africa?  World Health Organization.</p>  
<p>7.	https://files.aho.afro.who.int/afahobckpcontainer/production/files/iAHO_Mortality_Regional-Factsheet.pdf</p> 
<p>8.	Kungvankij, P. (n.d.). Chapter II, Hatchery Design. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations https://www.fao.org/3/ab707e/AB707E03.htm#ch3</p> 
<p>9.	Lim, M. T., Pan, B. J., Toh, D. W. K., Sutanto, C. N., & Kim, J. E. (2021). Animal protein versus</p>  
<p>10.	plant protein in supporting lean mass and muscle strength: A systematic review and 
	meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutrients, 13(2), 661 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13020661</p> 
<p>11.	Nasr-Allah, A. M., Dickson, M. W., Al-Kenawy, D. A. R., Ahmed, M. F. M., & El-Naggar, G. O. </p> 
<p>12.	(2014). Technical characteristics and economic performance of commercial tilapia hatcheries applying different management systems in Egypt. Aquaculture, 426–427, 222–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2014.02.004</p> 
<p>13.	Obiero, K., Meulenbroek, P., Drexler, S., Dagne, A., Akoll, P., Odong, R., Kaunda‐Arara, B., & Waidbacher, H. (2019). The contribution of fish to food and nutrition security in Eastern Africa: Emerging trends and future outlooks. Sustainability, 11(6), 1636. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061636 </p> 
<p>14.	Osborn, P. (n.d.). Design of freshwater fish hatcheries for small fish farmers. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/AC014E/AC014E02.htm#pII</p> 
<p>15.	Oxford Dictionary (2024). “Undernutrition” https://www.oed.com/dictionary/undernutrition_n?tab=meaning_and_use-paywall#140709971100.</p> 
<p>16.	Schönfeldt, H., & Hall, N. G. (2012). Dietary protein quality and malnutrition in Africa. British Journal of Nutrition, 108(S2), S69–S76. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0007114512002553</p> 
<p>17.	UNICEF (n.d.). South Asia has highest number of children exposed to severe water scarcity. UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/rosa/press-releases/south-asia-has-highest-number-children-exposed-severe-water-scarcity-unicef </p> 
<p>18.	Temba, M. C., Njobeh, P. B., Adebo, O. A., Olugbile, A. O., & Kayitesi, E. (2016). The role of compositing cereals with legumes to alleviate protein energy malnutrition in Africa. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 51(3), 543–554. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.13035</p> 
<p>19.	Tucker, C. S. (1991) Water quantity and Quality requirements for channel catfish hatcheries., Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, & Delta Research and Extension Center, Mississippi State University. In SRAC Publication No, 461. https://aquaculture.ca.uky.edu/sites/aquaculture.ca.uky.edu/files/srac_461_water_quantity_and_quality_requirements_for_channel_catfish_hatcheries.pdf</p> 
<p>20.	Xiong, T., Wu, Y., Hu, J., Xu, S., Li, Y., Kong, B., Zhang, Z., Chen, L., Tang, Y., Yao, P., Xiong, J., & Li, Y. (2023). Associations between high protein Intake, linear growth, and stunting in Children and adolescents: A cross-sectional study. Nutrients, 15(22), 4821. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15224821</p> 
<p>21.	United Nations University (2023). 500 million people live in 19 African nations deemed water insecure. https://unu.edu/press-release/500-million-people-live-19-african-nations-deemed-water-insecure#:~:text=Only%2013%20of%2054%20countries,to%20half%20a%20billion%20people </p> 


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