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 <div class="title"><h3>5.34 -Bambara Groundnut: Overcoming Climate Change in Africa </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Nathalie Amyotte , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Amyotte,N. (2022) Bambara Groundnut: Overcoming Climate Change in Africa, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
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          <p>In the face of a climate emergency, the world is in search of new solutions to keep farmer livelihoods intact. “Underutilized crops” such as Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc), have tremendous potential the stabilize food insecurity concerns caused by climate change (Mkandawire, 2007).
Bambara groundnut is a legume, related to cowpea believed to have been domesticated in Nigeria (Mkandawire, 2007). Much like the peanut plant, flowers are low to the soil and the seed pods grow underground (Republic of South Africa Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2011). The grain comes in 7 different forms, all with different advantages and disadvantages to farmers:</P>
<p>•	Black: fast maturation rate, small pods, low yield
<p>•	Red: slowest maturation rate, largest pods, good yield, pod inclined to rot
<p>•	Cream/Black eye: large pods, good yield
<p>•	Cream/Brown eye: medium-sized pods, good yield
<p>•	Cream/No eye: smallest-sized pods, low yield
<p>•	Speckled: small pods, low yield
<P>Brown: medium or large pods, yield varies (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
<p>Figure 1: Illustration of Bambara Groundnut(National Research Council, 2006)</p>
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<p>Bambara groundnut is often termed as “an underutilized, indigenous crop” because its planting was displaced through the introduction of the peanut plant by foreigners (Mkandawire, 2007). Historically, Bambara groundnut was a crop planted by women subsistence farmers because of its tolerance to harsh climates and poor soil fertility, making it a reliable crop for both nutritional and economic purposes. However, lack of interest and research funding available to scientists means little is known about the legume and it still can benefit from breeding programs (Mkandawire, 2007). (More details are in Section 4)
Climate change in Africa will result in decreased crop production and increases in malnutrition through the projected temperature increase of 3-4°C (Thompson, Barrang-Ford, & Ford, 2010). Bambara groundnut presents an opportunity to stabilize these food security challenges involved with climate change.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Requirements to Grow and Harvest Bambara Groundnut </h3>
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<p>In terms of cost, as one example that was available, a pack of 25 Bambara groundnut seed costs 26 ZAR from Livingseeds, South Africa’s first online seed store. This approximates to $2.36 CAD. A small pack of seed costs 13 ZAR, approximately $1.18 CAD (Livingseeds, 2019). 
It is best to grow in climates with temperatures ranging from 20-28°C and between 500-600 mm of rain but can tolerate water stress, meaning it can thrive in dryland climates (Republic of South Africa, 2011). If the plant experiences heavy rainfall before harvest, this will damage the crop and most likely kill it (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Bambara groundnut is a short photoperiod plant and many landraces cannot flower and hence produce grain in locations where the daylength is longer than 12 hours; in general, the landraces are daylength-adapted to their latitude and may not flower if moved north or south (Azam-Ali et al., 2001). The best soil conditions are deep, well-drained soils that are generally sandy loams (Louw, 2018) with a pH of 5.0-6.5 (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p> 
<p>In regards to herbicides, those used on cowpea can be used on Bambara groundnut, but it is most often hand-weeded to reduce costs and because weeding technology is not available for pod crops (Republic of South Africa, 2011).  Many common pests do not often affect Bambara groundnut due to the pods being underground, although nematodes can be detrimental to this crop (Mkandawire, 2007; Republic of South Africa, 2011). Nematode infestation may be avoided by planting earlier in the season before nematode colonies have a chance to grow (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p> 
<p>Bambara groundnut is often pollinated by ants because of the low-to-the-ground flowers (Mkandawire, 2007). It will reach maturation at 110-150 days (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Typically, the plant is harvested by hand and will be stored in the shell to prevent crop loss from weevils.  If shelled, seeds must be stored in sand, wood ash, vegetable oil or be dusted with insecticide (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Practical Uses for Bambara Groundnut </h3>
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<p>Bambara groundnut can be processed into several foodstuffs. They can be roasted for snack food, ground into flour, mixed into porridges or stews or even processed into milk (Louw, 2018). Check out Section 9 for recipe ideas.</p>
<p>This crop has significant nutritional value. It is very filling and high in protein and carbohydrates (National Research Council, 2006). One seed is 63% carbohydrate, 19% protein, 6.5% fat (Mkandawire, 2007) and very high in the essential amino acid methionine (National Research Council, 2006). Per 100 g, it has 367-414 calories, much greater than common beans (National Research Council, 2006).</p>
<p>The Bambara plant makes good animal feed. The beans can be fed to poultry while the stem and the leaves of the plant make great livestock feed due to its high amino acid content (National Research Council, 2006).</p>
<p><b>Bambara groundnut provides some medicinal benefits:</b></p>
<p>1)	When boiled with maize, it is drunk to relieve diarrhea (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
<p>2)	When eaten raw, it is believed to relieve nausea experienced by pregnant women (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
<p>3)	Due to its high fibre content, it is also good for preventing heart disease and colon cancer (National Research Council, 2006).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Production Trends + Benefits</h3>
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<p>When looking at current production trends of Bambara groundnut it is grossly underproduced.</p>
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<p><b>Figure 2:</b> Production trends in Bambara Groundnut and Cowpea in Africa from 2008-2017 (FAOSTAT, 2019)</p>

	<p>Approximately 100 million Africans eat Bambara groundnut, yet total production is extremely low (National Research Council, 2006), for example compared to its close relative, cowpea (Figure 2). Bambara yields per hectare can also be low, with the reasons explored in the next section. One way to increase production trends is to promote its potential as secure food source in the face of climate change.</p>
<p>Bambara groundnut is a nitrogen-fixating legume, meaning it produces its own nitrogen fertilizer through symbiotic association with root bacteria (Mkandawire, 2007). This indicates that it is an excellent plant to intercrop or plant in rotation with crops that have higher nitrogen requirements. FAO suggests Bambara groundnut pairs well with maize, cassava and other cereal crops like millet and sorghum (n.d.). Synthetic fertilizers are often inaccessible to poor farmers because of economic and political issues (World Bank, 2010).  On average, 20% of West Africa’s fertilizers have been reported as nutrient deficient (World Bank, 2010).This concern can be reduced because the Bambara groundnut is tolerant of nutrient-poor soils and can help provide nitrogen to companion crops (Mkandawire, 2007).</p>
<p>Bambara is very drought tolerant (FAO, n.d.). During a drought, the Bambara groundnut can still have substantial yields when most other crops would fail (FAO, n.d.). Bambara groundnut is consequently a reliable crop for poor farmers since rainfall is becoming increasingly reduced in dry areas of Africa because of climate change (National Research Council, 2006).</p> 
<p>This plant is even able to thrive in red, acidic soil in tropical areas that are toxic to most crops, meaning it also has the potential to grow in tropical regions provided there is no heavy rainfall before harvest (Mkandawire, 2007). If planting is timed properly, heavy rainfall at harvest may be avoided allowing it to thrive in tropical climates on top of its ability to tolerate dry climates (Mkandawire, 2007).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
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<p>Although there are several benefits to growing this crop there should be some important issues to consider.
Bambara Groundnut is photoperiod sensitive, as previously noted in Section 1 (Azam-Ali et al., 2001). Research by Berchie et al. (2013) indicates that some landraces are less photoperiod sensitive, meaning that they can be moved north/south and be used in pan-African breeding programs, but they are lower yielding under non-native daylength (i.e. they do not flower efficiently) (Berchie et al., 2013).</p>
<p>A common issue with the Bambara groundnut is pod-shattering (National Research Council, 2006). Pod-shattering is a wild trait in beans that causes the pod to shatter when harvested  (Murgia et al., 2017). This is a significant issue for farmers because pod-shattering results in loss of seed. Luckily, this trait may be able to be bred out of domestic varieties of Bambara groundnut, like it was in maize and barley if research funding is provided (Murgia et al., 2017). Establishing a dedicated seed bank, which exists for the world’s other major crops, would be incredibly beneficial towards the improvement of this crop’s genetics. Currently Bambara groundnut does not have one.</p>
<p>As Discussed in Section 1 there are a few pests that may affect Bambara groundnut. Sandy soils are needed for the pods of Bambara groundnut and the nitrogen-fixating nodules to grow (Louw, 2018). However, Bambara groundnut is more susceptible to nematode infestations in sandy soil (Kim et al.,  2017). Infestations can be avoided with earlier planting before populations increase (Republic of South Africa, 2011). After harvest, when not stored in its shell, the grain may deteriorate during storage (Republic of South Africa, 2011). While drying the grain, it is especially prone to weevil damage. To prevent weevils, insecticides (which may not be affordable) would need to be spread over the drying seeds or the grain can be stored in sand (Republic of South Africa, 2011).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h3>
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<p>As climate change occurs, Africa’s soils will continue to degrade, water will continue to become scarce and food insecurity will increase (Thompson, Barrang-Ford, & Ford, 2010). Bambara groundnut presents a real solution to some of these issues and can improve with breeding programs. Research and development must be invested into indigenous crops like Bambara groundnut for reasons such as nutritional benefits to both animals and humans, economic benefits from cost-saving practices and environmental benefits from replenishing soil nitrogen. Bambara groundnut has a tremendous opportunity to be explored, improved and benefit peoples all across Africa if provided renewed interest.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Further Reading + Additional Videos</h3>
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<p>•	Lost Crops of Africa Book chapter on Bambara Groundnut by The National Academic   Press: https://www.nap.edu/read/11763/chapter/4</p>
<p>•	Production Guidelines for growing Bambara Groundnut developed by Republic of South Africa’s Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: https://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Brochures/ProdguideBambara.pdf</p>
<p>•	How Bambara Groundnut can Improve Food Security by University of Nottingham: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdB5L1nsDlo</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Places to Buy Seed Online</h3>
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<p>•	https://livingseeds.co.za/bambara-nut.html</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Videos on how to grow Bambara Groundnut by Crops for the Future</h3>
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<p>•	Sowing Bambara Groundnut: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CTyKk9UBvXo</p>
<p>•	Flowering of Bambara Groundnut: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdB5L1nsDlo</p>
<p>•	Bambara Groundnut Harvest: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eyGbj43Zn5s</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Recipes</h3>
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<p>•	Prepping Bambara Groundnut for Roasting: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25yaMhgCxLE</p> 
<p>•	Highly visual recipe for cooking Bambara groundnut stew: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lmHZyNa1SO4</p> 
<p>•	Recipe for Bambara Groundnut Dumplings: 
http://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/</p> 
<p><b>Appendix</b></p>
<p>Data used to generate Figure 2 (FAOSTAT, 2019).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1.	Azam-Ali, S. N., Sesay, A., Karikari, S. K., Massawe, F. J., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., Bannayan, M., & 
a.	Hampson, K. J. (2001). Assessing the Potential of an Underutilized Crop – a Case Study 
b.	Using Bambara Groundnut. Experimental Agriculture, 37 (4), 433-472. Retrieved from
c.	https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/experimental-agriculture/article/assessing-
d.	the-potential-of-an-underutilized-crop-a-case-study-using-bambara-groundnut/
e.	B543A6DE27794BF7031EE8DD81F65412.</p> 

<p>2.	Berchie, J.N., Amelie, G., McClymont, S., Raizada, M., Adu-Dapaah, H. & Sarkodie-Addo, J. 
a.	(2013). Performance of 13 Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) 
b.	Landraces under 12 H and 14 H Photoperiod. Journal of Agronomy, 12, 20-28. Retrieved 
c.	from https://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=ja.2013.20.28. doi: 10.3923/ja.2013.20.28.</p>

<p>3.	Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Traditional Crops: Bambara 
a.	Groundnut. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/traditional-crops/bambaragroundnut/en/.</p> 

<p>4.	 Kim, E., Seo, Y., Kim, Y. S., Park, Y., & Kim, Y. H. (2017). Effects of Soil Textures on 
a.	Infectivity of Root-Knot Nematodes on Carrot. Plant Pathology, 66 (1), 66-74. Retrieved 
b.	from https://doi.org/10.5423/PPJ.OA.07.2016.0155.</p>

<p>5.	Living Seeds. (n.d.). Nyimo Beans Vegetables Seeds [Seed Supplier Website]. Retrieved 
a.	from https://livingseeds.co.za/bambara-nut.html.</p> 
 
<p>6.	Louw, M. (2018). Bambara Groundnut: South African Indigenous Grains. Retrieved 
a.	from http://southafrica.co.za/bambara-groundnut.html.</p> 
 
<p>7.	Mkandawire, C. H. (2007). Review of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) 
a.	Production in Sub-Sahara Africa. Agricultural Journal, 2 (4), 464-470. Retrieved from
b.	http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/medwelljournals/aj/2007/464-470.pdf.</p>
 
<p>8.	National Research Council. (2006). Bambara Bean. In Lost Crops of Africa: Volume II: 
a.	Vegetables (52-73). Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved from 
b.	https://doi.org/10.17226/11763.</p>
<p>9.	Murgia, M. L., Attene, G., Rodriguez, M., Bitocchi, E., Bellucci, E., Fois, D., Nanni, L., . . . Rau, D. 
a.	(2017). A comprehensive phenotypic investigation of the “Pod-shattering syndrome” in 
b.	common bean. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8: 251. Retrieved from 
c.	https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2017.00251/full. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00251.</p>

<p>10.	Republic of South Africa Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. (2011). Production 
a.	Guidelines for Bambara Groundnuts [Brochure]. South Africa: Directorate Agricultural 
b.	Information Services. Retrieved from https://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Brochures/
c.	ProdguideBambara.pdf.</p>
<p>11.	RMIT University. (2015, August 11). Fact check: Is Australia the sunniest continent on Earth? 
a.	ABC News. Retrieved from https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-08-10/solar-coverage-
b.	fact-check-is-australia-sunniest-continent/6659316.</p> 

<p>12.	Thompson, H.E., Barrang-Ford, L., & Ford, J. D. (2010). Climate Change and Food Security in 
a.	Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic Literature Review. Sustainability, 2, 2719-
b.	2733. Retrievered from https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/8/2719. doi:10.3390/su2082719.</p>

<p>13.	World Bank. (2010). Silent and lethal: How quiet corruption undermines Africa's development 
a.	efforts. Africa’s Development Indicators. Retrieved from http://redcultura.com/index.
b.	php/pdf/download/id=382453&type=file. doi: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8202-8.</p>