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 <div class="title"><h3>8.42-Value Addition of Sesame Seeds</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Kate DeBaets, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>DeBaets,K. (2022) Value Addition of Sesame Seeds,In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
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          <P>Sesame seeds have been a staple crop for many smallholder farmers in the Global South in southern latitudes (Ram et al., 1990). It is recognized as an important oil seed crop and is widely used as a spice (Ram et al., 1990). Mediterranean countries including in the Middle East rely heavily on nuts and seeds to fulfill their daily diets Sesame seeds contain sesaolin and sesamin which have been shown to lower cholesterol and help overall heart health (Singh et al., 2016). Sesame seeds are an important cash crop for many smallholder farmers who live in countries that are facing severe droughts as a result of climate change. Sesame seeds are extremely drought tolerant which makes them a reliable income and nutrient source during times of unpredicted drought (Boureima, et al., 2016). The objective of this chapter is to inform readers on different value addition methods for sesame seeds to assist smallholder farmers.</p> 
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Sesame Oil </h3>
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<p>Sesame oil is important in both the Global South and the Global North, as it is composed of essential nutrients and minerals. In the Global South HIV/AIDS is an ongoing health issue that affects millions. When living with HIV/AIDS it is important to maintain a diet of high fatty foods such as oil seeds (Lieberum, 2002).  An easy way to ensure the body is getting enough fatty acids is to incorporate sesame into the diet by cooking with sesame oil (Lieberum, 2002).  . 
Sesame oil is a value addition product that is easily attainable by smallholder farmers in the developing world. Selling sesame oil rather than raw sesame seeds can increase profits for smallholder farmers. In order to make sesame oil there are three major steps involved; dehulling, breaking, and cooking (Axtell, 1992). Dehulling can also be referred to as decortication which involves peeling the seeds of their outer coating. The breaking of the seeds is the second step and it can be done two different ways. The first way is hot water floatation which is the simplest yet most inefficient method. In this method the seeds are placed in a pot of boiling water and are left to simmer for several hours. Once the pot is taken off the fire the contents are left to sit and cool and the oil will float to the surface and can then be skimmed off.  As this method has a lower extraction efficiency, salt is sometimes used to help break oil-water emulsions. A more efficient method involves using a ghani which is “a large pestle and mortar system” (Axtell, 1992), In many developing countries, smallholder farmers use traditional animal powered ghanis. The mortar is firmly in place to the ground and the pestle rotates. As the pestle rotates oil is extracted because of a friction and pressure relationship. The oil is released through a small aperture that is located at the base of the mortar. Through this method approximately 40 kg of material can be produced per day. In order to maximize extraction, rural smallholder farmers should consider using the second method to extract sesame oil as it results in a greater yield of oil. Finally, the cooking of the oil can be completed. Cooking the extracted oil is essential as it helps to eliminate any excess water traces (Axtell, 1992). This can be done using a shallow pot either on a stove top or over an open fire.</p>  
<p>The target market of sesame oil produced by smallholder farmers should be locals. When using the methods above, the oil will not be to the same standard as Westerns are accustomed to and will have a different taste than the oils bought at urban grocery stores. In order to reach the target market of locals, producers should sell the oil at local roadside stands or to local restaurants and markets.</p> 
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Tahini </h3>
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<p>Tahini is a popular staple food in the Middle East and is made from dehulled sesame seeds (Bennett, 1993). It takes the form of a paste and can be eaten on its own as a dip or can be combined with other ingredients to make different traditional recipes, such as halva or hummus (Bennett, 1993). The packaging and storage of tahini is crucial in order to limit the risks of Salmonella surviving (Torlak et al., 2013). It has been proven that Salmonella can survive in tahini for extended amounts of time (Torlak et al., 2013). In order to limit this as much as possible, tahini should be kept at a temperature of 21 degrees Celsius (Torlak et al., 2013).</p> 
<p>The first step to making tahini requires the toasting of the sesame seeds (Killebrew, 2018). This can be done on a pan over medium heat. If a stove is not accessible this step can be done over an open fire. After the seeds are roasted, they are added to a food processor with cooking oil and pureed. Oil can be added until the desired consistency is reached. Once the puree is at the desired consistency, portion the mixture into containers that are airtight. The tahini must then be refrigerated and can last for several months (Killebrew, 2018). The main cost of making tahini is purchasing a food processor and containers to package the tahini in. Mason jars can be used to package the puree as they airtight sealing and are a cost-effective option. The ideal target market for tahini should be urban grocery stores to compete against more expensive, international imports (Alibaba, 2015).</p> 
<p>To further increase the profit of smallholder farmers, they should consider using the prepared tahini to make hummus to create a greater value-added food product. The FAO did a report in 2016 related to simple recipes for community members in food scarce developing countries. In the report they provided a simple recipe for hummus that is a feasible option for smallholder farmers as it is low cost and simple to make. Hummus is a staple food in the Middle East as it provides essential nutrients from both chickpeas and sesame seeds (FAO, 2016). In order to make the recipe, a food processor and mortar and pestle are required (FAO, 2016). Both of these items can be bought for 30 US dollars or under on Alibaba.com. The recipe according to the FAO is as follows:</p>
<p>1.	If using dried chickpeas, to cook them:soak the dried chickpeas in warm water for 12 hours with ⅓ teaspoon of baking soda (ideally leave them soaking overnight). Rinse them well and drain. Bring water to a boil in a cooking pot and when the water is boiling add the chickpeas and leave them cooking over low heat for approximately 2 hours until tender. Remove them from the heat, drain and leave them to cool. Reserve the cooking water (FAO, 2016).</p>
<p>2.	Puree the cooked chickpeas in a food processor or in a mortar and pestle, adding approximately 50 ml (3 tablespoons) of the cooking liquid (FAO, 2016).</p> 
<p>3.	 Mix the peeled and crushed garlic cloves, the salt and the cumin in a mortar and pestle until a paste is created. Add the tahini and the lemon juice (FAO, 2016).</p>
<p>4.	Add this paste to the mashed chickpeas mixture and use the food processor to blend it into a creamy puree (FAO, 2016).
A cost-effective way to package the hummus is by using mason jars. Mason jars ensure the product is well sealed and they can be refrigerated or frozen easily. The cost of mason jars is around $0.42-$0.45 a jar but there is a minimum requirement of 5000 pieces (Alibaba- Salad Glass Embossed Logo Mason Jar, n.d.). Labels for the jars can be purchased through Alibaba.com. Alibaba offers custom labels, allowing the producer to design them as they wish. It is advised that the producer uses bright colors to design the label as it is more likely to catch the consumer’s eye. The labels are stick on and can be bought for as cheap as $2.50 a roll (Alibaba, 2018).</p>  
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Peeled (Dehulled) Sesame Seeds </h3>
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<p>Sesame seeds can be dehulled either chemically or physically. Chemically dehulling the seeds involves soaking the seeds in alkaline solution in order to neutralize (Takenaka, Ogata, Yabe, Yamauchi, & Kato, 2006). The shell will then come off but the seed will lose nutritional value and will become tasteless (Takenaka et al., 2006). Physically dehulling the seeds involves stirring the seeds together with a small amount of water (Takenaka et al., 2006). Natural friction results in the peeling of the seeds (Takenaka et al., 2006). Physically dehulling the seeds is the more cost-effective option because chemicals do not have to be bought. Dehulling sesame seeds requires large amounts of labour, as they have to be harvested and hulled. However, this value addition method is advisable, because in the long run the profit will be greater (Gelalcha, 2009).</p>
<p>With the dehulled sesame seeds, smallholder farmers can make enriched cassava wafers. Cassava wafers are easy to make as they only require cassava flour, sesame seeds, sugar and a pinch of salt (Recipe Book- Health, Knowledge and Flavours, 2018). This is a beneficial recipe as both cassava and sesame seeds offer different nutritional values. Cassava is rich in starch, calcium, phosphorous and vitamins C and A (Montagnac, Davis, & Tanumihardjo, 2009). Sesame seeds are rich in vitamin B1, protein, iron, magnesium calcium, zinc and provide an excellent energy source (Pathak, N., Rai, A. K., Kumari, R., Bhat, K. V, 2014). Cassava wafers are an essential staple recipe in Haiti (Recipe Book- Health, Knowledge and Flavours, 2018). They are relatively easy to make and if the smallholder farmer is growing both cassava and sesame seeds, this recipe is relatively low cost as they can make their own cassava flour. To make the cassava wafer, mix the cassava flour with a pinch of salt, 400 g of sesame seeds, and 450 g of sugar (Recipe Book- Health, Knowledge and Flavours, 2018). Once the mixture is made place it on a hot griddle and cook until golden brown (Recipe Book- Health, Knowledge and Flavours, 2018). The only money that would need to be spent is on cooking equipment like a pan to cook the wafer in and either a stove or open fire can be used for a heat source. The target market for cassava wafers should be locals, and this target can be reached through the use of roadside stands. </p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful hints and practical tips to get started </h3>
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<p><b>Links to cooking equipment:</b></p>
<p>Air Forced Ovens. (2018). Retrieved November 07, 2018, from https://www.alibaba.com/trade/search?IndexArea=product_en&CatId=&fsb=y&SearchText=air forced oven 
Cheap Price Electric Forced Air Circulation 300c High Temp Industrial Oven - Buy Industrial Oven Price,300c High Temp Industrial Oven,Forced Air Circulation Oven Product on Alibaba.com. (n.d.). Retrieved November 13, 2018, from</p> 

<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Cheap-price-electric-forced-air-circulation_60710227574.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.11.19ba21a9TsPb8N&s=p
500ml Salad Glass Embossed Logo Mason Jar - Buy Mason Jar With Metal Cap,Glass Mason Jar,Glass Jar With Custom Logo Product on Alibaba.com. (2018). Retrieved November 12, 2018, from 
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/500ml-Salad-Glass-Embossed-Logo-Mason_60711563554.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normalList.70.75291c95vs0hTo</p>

<p>Factory Custom Printed Adhesive Product Labels Sicker - Buy Custom Printed Product Labels Sicker,Adhesive Product Labels Sicker,Product Labels Sicker Product on Alibaba.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Factory-custom-printed-adhesive-product-labels_60716916291.html?spm=a2700.7724838.2017115.62.7cb94ef0BQHcl2&s=p</p>

<p><b>Links to Recipes:</b></p>
<p>Tahini: https://www.daringgourmet.com/how-to-make-homemade-tahini-paste/</p>
<p>Hummus: http://www.fao.org/3/a-bc927e.pdf</p>
<p>Cassava Waffers: http://www.fao.org/3/i8269en/I8269EN.pdf</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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 <p>1.	Ababa, A. (2015). Sesame Value Chain Development Strategy ( Working Document 2015-2019 ). Retrieved from
https://www.agriknowledge.org/downloads/6h440s47v</p>
<p>2.	Bennett, M. (1993). Sesame seed, in A Handbook for Farmers and Investors. p361–368. Retrieved from
 https://www.agmrc.org/media/cms/sesame_38F4324EE52CB.pdf</p>

<p>3.	Boureima, S., Diouf, M., Amoukou, A.I. and Damme, V.P., Screening for sources of tolerance to drought in sesame induced mutants: Assessment of indirect selection criteria for seed yield , Int. J. Pure App. Biosci. 4(1): 45-60 (2016). doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18782/2320-7051.2218 </p>

<p>4.	FAO. (2016). International Year of Pulses- Hummus, 10. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-bc927e.pdf</p>

<p>5.	Gelalcha, S. D. (2009). Sesame trade arrangements , costs and risks in Ethiopia: A Baseline Survey. Wageningen University, Netherlands.  Retrieved from
		https://www.wur.nl/upload_mm/9/a/9/59d09a46-b629-4014-b2bd-adf765894adc_Report2Gelalcha170610.pdf</p> 

<p>6.	Killebrew, K. (2018, May 05). BEST Easy Homemade Tahini Paste. Retrieved November 12, 2018, from 
a.	https://www.daringgourmet.com/how-to-make-homemade-tahini-paste/</p>

<p>7.	Lieberum, M. (2002). Special eating needs for people living with HIV/AIDS. In Living Well with HIV/AIDS. FAO, Rome. Retrieved November 13, 2018, from 
a.	http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y4168E/y4168e06.htm</p>

<p>8.	Axtell, B.J. (1992) Minor Oil Crops- Principles of Extraction. FAO AGRICULTURAL SERVICES BULLETIN No. 94. FAO, Rome. Retrieved November 07, 2018, from http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5043E/x5043E00.htm#Contents </p>

<p>9.	Montagnac, J. A., Davis, C. R., & Tanumihardjo, S. A. (2009). Nutritional Value of Cassava for Use as a Staple Food and Recent Advances for Improvement, Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 8, 187-188. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1541-4337.2009.00077.x</p>

<p>10.	Pathak, N., Rai, A. K., Kumari, R., & Bhat, K. V. (2014). Value addition in sesame: A perspective on bioactive components for enhancing utility and profitability. Pharmacognosy Reviews, 8(16), 147-55. Retrieved from
a.	https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4127822/</p>

<p>11.	FAO (2018). Recipe Book- Health, Knowledge and Flavours.. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/i8269en/I8269EN.pdf</p>

<p>12.	Ram, R., D. Catlin, J. Romero, and C. Cowley. 1990. Sesame: New approaches for crop improvement. p. 225-228. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in New Crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR. Retrieved November 13, 2018, from 
a.	https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1990/V1-225.html</p> 

<p>13.	Singh, J., Kunwar, N., & Tripathi, S. (2016). Benefits add Nutritive Value of Sesame Seed. International Journal of Recent Scientific Research,  7, 13245–13247. Retrieved from
a.	https://recentscientific.com/sites/default/files/6006.pdf</p> 

<p>14.	Takenaka, N., Ogata, K., Yabe, T., Yamauchi, R., & Kato, K. (2006). Effect of oil and sugar
16.	contents on the surface of dehulled-roasted sesame seeds on adhesion between the seeds. Journal of Food Science, 71(6): E303 - E307. Retrieved from
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00104.x</p>

<p>15.	Torlak, E., Sert, D., & Serin, P. (2013). Fate of Salmonella during sesame seeds roasting and storage of tahini. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 163(2–3), 214–217. Retrieved from
	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.03.010</p>

<p>16.	Yaacoub, R., Saliba, R., Nsouli, B., Khalaf, G., & Birlouez-Aragon, I. (2008). Formation of lipid oxidation and isomerization products during processing of nuts and sesame seeds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56(16), 7082–7090. Retreieved from https://doi.org/10.1021/jf800808d</p>

<p>17.	500ml Salad Glass Embossed Logo Mason Jar - Buy Mason Jar With Metal Cap,Glass Mason Jar,Glass Jar With Custom Logo Product on Alibaba.com. (2018). Retrieved November 12, 2018, from 
a.	https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/500ml-Salad-Glass-Embossed-Logo-Mason_60711563554.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normalList.70.75291c95vs0hTo</p>