View source for Sesame-as-a-drought-resistant-crop

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 <div class="title"><h3>5.72 -Sesame as a drought-resistant crop</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Sophia Edross,University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Edross,S. (2025) Sesame as a drought-resistant crop, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph,Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
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          <p>Smallholder farmers, with an estimated 450–500 million worldwide, accounting for 85% of the world’s farms, comprise a significant portion of the world’s population (Harvey et al., 2014). The increase in severe droughts and floods due to climate change is expected to have devastating consequences on the yields of essential crops for smallholder farmers which is why it is urgent for the global community to identify proactive measures, such as the implementation of drought resistant crops. This chapter is about the drought tolerant crop, sesame (Sesamum indicum), from which its small seeds can be consumed directly or as a source of oil, and how it can benefit smallholder farmers, and in particular women farmers in Africa (Anilakumar et al., 2010).</p>
<p>[[File:SESAME.jpg]]</p>
<P>Figure 1. Sesame seeds (Source Mauro Cateb, Flickr).
https://www.flickr.com/photos/mauroescritor/13095954953/in/photolist-9NvYZM-4hQHsG-B6mVq-kXfc9M-XowEWF-h88Qv-aSJSD2-2kKW96A-2kKZS88-2k8nZ26-4ELF86-bjbJzn-avRHER-6brFAd-2kKW96W-aAeMA2-hJJ2i-8J68i2-8J9eMu-8J67WZ-ri234f-cMSNCo-d2JSq-zYeUB8-dXmBz</P> 
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Crop Background  </h3>
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<p>Sesame is a broadleaf, primarily annual or long season plant that prefers irrigation to rainfall (Terefe et al., 2012). A single sesame plant can grow to a height of 1.5-2 metres depending on the variety as well as growth conditions. Due to these variables. the plant can greatly vary in size, flower colouring, form/shape, growth habits, seed size, and seed composition (Terefe et al., 2012). The plant is erect, branched, and possesses an extensive root system which aids in its considerable tolerance to drought stresses; however, the crop may experience significant yield losses under different environmental stressor conditions like salinity, waterlogging, heavy metals, and chilling stresses. As parts of the world like Africa and South Asia become drier due to climate change, adoption of sesame may be beneficial to small scale farmers, because the crop can survive for extended periods with as little as 75 mm of rainfall (Terefe et al., 2012). </p> 
<p>[[File:SPLANT.png]]</p>
<P>Figure 2. Sesame plant structure (Source, Wikipedia).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame </P>

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       <h3 class="title-bg">Plant Nutrition and Human Consumption</h3>
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<p>Sesame seeds were introduced starting in India before spreading throughout the Middle East, Africa, and Asia (Anilakumar et al., 2010). In terms of nutrition, whole sesame seeds and seed cakes are highly nutritious, containing 22-25% and 22-35% protein; 43-50% and 9% oil; 11 and 23% carbohydrates; 3 and 4% minerals, respectively (Terefe et al., 2012). Sesame seeds also have many health benefits; they contain antioxidants, reduce cholesterol, regulate blood lipids, strengthen protection of the liver and kidneys, support the cardiovascular system, contain anti-inflammatory properties, and more (Terefe et al., 2012). Though sesame is used widely as a source of oil for cooking (Terefe et al., 2012), it is also used to make tahini - a ground sesame butter that is traditionally used in Middle Eastern cuisine (Anilakumar et al., 2010). </p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Growth</h3>
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<p>Sesame growth, development, flowering and seed formation continue for long durations if the environmental conditions are favourable (Terefe et al., 2012). The sesame plant produces bell-shaped white flowers that develop within the axils of its leaves. Flowering typically begins some 35-45 days after planting and continues for another 75-85 days for the early types, though some varieties last up to 150 days (Terefe et al., 2012).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Pollination</h3>
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<p>Sesame is usually a self-pollinating crop, although cross-pollination by insects is possible happens often enough that up to 50% of outcrossing reported in sesame plants was caused by insect pollination (Terefe et al., 2012).</P> 
<p>[[File:ANCIENT.jpg]]</p>
<P>Figure 3. Ancient depiction of sesame plant (Source Seikei Zusetsu agriculture encyclopedia, 1804).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame </P>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Fruiting Structure</h3>
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<p>The sesame plant’s fruiting structure is a rectangular, deeply grooved capsule or pod with a triangular beak that, for most commercial cultivars, starts forming about 20 to 30 cm above the ground surface (Terefe et al., 2012). Capsule size is dependent on environmental factors, and lengths can vary from 2.5 cm to 8 cm (Terefe et al., 2012). Physiological maturity typically occurs 95 to 110 days after planting for early types, and up to 150 days for later varieties (Terefe et al., 2012).</P>
<P>Sesame will normally dry out in about 150 days (Terefe et al., 2012), therefore, farmers should not leave fully matured plants standing in the field for a long time, as seed loss can occur through shattering.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Seed Retention</h3>
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<P>There are two distinct types of sesame pod opening behaviours, shattering and non-shattering (Terefe et al., 2012). In Ethiopia, for instance, most sesame seed cultivars are of the shattering type which open their pods by cracking top to bottom and releasing the seeds that fall to the ground. According to Terefe et al. (2012), the non-shattering or dehiscent varieties have more effective methods of seed retention, which makes them suitable for machine harvesting or harvesting later in the season. Because of these discrepancies between seed types, it is in the best interest of smallholder farmers to obtain diverse seed cultivars by visiting seed banks, exchanging seeds with other farmers, or intercropping the sesame plant with other vegetables to maximize yields.</P>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Planting Sesame</h3>
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<p><b>Soil Requirements</b></p>
<p>Sesame is quite adaptable to many different soil types but thrives best in well-drained, medium textured fertile soil with a pH of between 5-8 and does not tolerate salinity or standing water (Terefe et al., 2012). Despite their drought tolerance, sesame plants require warm, moist soil and will not emerge as seedlings in soil that is slightly crusted – because of these needs, special attention must be paid to soil moisture levels (Terefe et al., 2012).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Cropping System and Rotation  </h3>
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<p>Sesame is often grown as an intercrop, for example with sorghum in Haraghe, Ethiopia, and with a staple crop, such as tef in Ethiopia in North Shewa (Terefe et al., 2012). Sesame fits well into crop rotating systems, and is often planted after cotton, peanuts, soybeans, onions, and other vegetables with no disruptions (Terefe et al., 2012). There are different mechanisms through which sesame can increase overall crop yields, for example by minimizing infestations of certain pests that contribute to significant crop losses. It is because of these mechanisms that sesame plays important roles in both intercropping and crop rotation systems. For instance, the practice of intercropping sesame with millet has been shown to reduce infestations of striga weeds (Striga hermonthica L.) compared to mono-cropping millet (Hess & Dodo, 2004; Wacal et al., 2021), and higher crop yields have been reported when intercropping sesame with sunflower, maize and peanuts (Ijoyah et al., 2016; Olowe & Adeyemo, 2009).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Weeding  </h3>
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 <p>Weeds, insects, and disease are of primary concern when considering hinderances to sesame crop yields. The severity of these issues is exacerbated by expanding crop acreage and monocropping practices (Terefe et al., 2012). </p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Land Preparation </h3>
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<p>Terefe et al. (2012) state that “The recommended planting distance for sesame is 10 cm between plants and 40 cm between rows, making 250,000 plant populations per hectare.” During initial planting the inter-row distance (40cm) can be maintained, but the intra-row distance (10cm) should be established afterwards during the thinning process. The wider the rows are spaced, the more easily farmers are able to cultivate for weed effective control. Wider row spacing is recommended when planting earlier or in drier areas, while narrower row spacing is useful both when irrigation is possible in higher rainfall areas and when planting sesame closer to the end of the season (Terefe et al., 2012). </p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Harvest and Storage </h3>
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<p>Sesame dries out in about 120-150 days. The seeds themselves contain 50% oil at harvest and need to be below 6% moisture before being stored to avoid degradation (Terefe et al., 2012).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Pests</h3>
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<p>Diseases are generally considered to cause less damage to sesame than pests. There are numerous pests that impact the yields and seed quality of sesame. For example, 38 insect species have been found to infest sesame in Uganda, with the sesame webworm (Antigastra catalaunalis Dup.) and gall midge (Asphondylia sesami Felt.) considered most detrimental (62% and 98.8% occurrences of infestation, respectively, in northern Uganda). Various measures have been recommended against these two pests, although not many of them are being applied in Uganda (Egonyu et al., 2005).</p> 
<p>In India, the sesame crop is reported to be attacked by over 30 species of insects. Out of all the insects, once again the sesame webworm is the most seriously detrimental to crops, causing 25.00 – 90.00 per cent yield loss. Other pests prone to attacking sesame crops in India include the sesame gall fly, mite, white fly, and bud fly (Yadav et al., 2016).</p>
<p>The application of bio-inoculants (Azospirillum), which works by increasing phosphorus and potassium levels in the plants (Selvanarayanan, 2013), induces insect resistance among the treated plants, and minimal leaf damage has been reported (Anandh et al., 2010). Research has also indicated that sesame plants themselves contain high concentrations of lignans within their leaves, stems and seeds, which once extracted could be used for insecticides (Hata et al., 2010).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Fertilization</h3>
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<p>The fertilization needs of sesame are minimal. Recent studies out of Bako, Ethiopia, indicated a 35% yield uptick from the application of 38/29 kg/ha NP2O5 fertilizers at initial planting. Similarly, out of Humera, Ethiopia, the use of 120 kg/ha NPK (19:19:19) + K2SO4 50 kg/ha + urea 50k g/ha at first planting resulted in a 32% yield increase compared to zero fertilization (Terefe et al., 2012). </p>

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       <h3 class="title-bg">Labour</h3>
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<p>The planting and harvesting of sesame are labour intensive processes that involve the use of manpower in nearly each step of the way. Cosmas Wacal et.al  suggest that to improve labour in sesame production, manual sowing tools should be introduced to reduce seed costs. Some examples of these low-cost technologies include sesame seed planters, ox-ploughs and weeders.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Profitability of Sesame and Benefits to Women Farmers – Nigerian Case Study</h3>
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<p>In 2021, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization statistics indicated that Sudan was the world’s leading sesame seed producer with an annual production of 1,119,026 tons; India followed with 817,000 tons (FAO, 2021). Out of the top ten producers of sesame seeds, 60% were of African origin, which places Africa as the largest sesame seed producer globally with 3,362,247 tons cultivated on over 7,007,345 ha. Unfortunately, yields are still lowest in Africa due to limited access to improved varieties, low soil fertility, and the limited use of inputs such as fertilizers.
Ajibade et al.(2021) conducted a profitability analysis of sesame production among women farmers in the Ofu Local Government Area (LGA) in Kogi State Nigeria, which found that land clearing (95.00%), planting (92.5%), stumping (72.5%), weeding (71.67%), pesticide/insecticide application (77.5%) and supplying (75.0%) were the major production activities carried out by respondents. The implied that women in the study area were heavily involved in activities related to sesame production.</p>
<p>Results of the study showed that $150 USD per cropping season was the total cost incurred in sesame production while $368 USD per cropping season was accrued to the respondents in the form of return (Ajibade, Adejo, Eti-Ukwu, & Maiye, 2021). This indicates that the average farmer earned $218 USD as profit per cropping season, suggesting that sesame farming is a profitable venture within the area of study. The benefit cost ratio was 2.46, implying that sesame production is viable and profitable among women sesame farmers in the area (Ajibade et al., 2021).</p>
<p>In conclusion, this study’s results showed that female sesame farmers were active and engaged in various production activities that are culturally ascribed to men, such as land clearing and stumping (Ajibade et al., 2021). The findings also showed that sesame is a viable and profitable crop, and female farmers should, therefore, be encouraged to invest further into sesame production and to plant higher yielding varieties to incur more profits (Ajibade et al., 2021).</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h3>
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<p>Sesame has the potential to be a high yield, highly profitable crop for smallholder farmers, particularly women farmers, due to its drought tolerance, low fertilization needs, and its tendency to outcompete weeds that would typically overtake intercropped species (Ajibade et al. 2021). Because of its low maintenance, smallholder farmers would be less likely to need to hire outside labour to help in the cultivation process, thereby saving them money that can instead be used to diversify their crops by purchasing good quality seeds from community seed banks or exchanging seed varieties with other local farmers.</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started </h3>
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<p>Harvesting and Storing of Sesame</p> 
<p>Row Planting of Sesame </p>
<p>Where Can Farmers Obtain Seeds?</p>
<p>Sesame Production Manual (Ethiopian Source)</p>
<p>Sesame Production Manual for Smallholder Farmers  (Somalian Source)</p>
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       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1.Ajibade, Y. E., Adejo, P. E., Eti-Ukwu, A. I., & Maiye, M. O. (2021). Profitability analysis of sesame production among women farmers in Ofu Local Government Area, Kogi State, Nigeria. International Journal of Agricultural Economics, Management and Development, 9(1), 110–124. https://daeeksu.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Ajibade-et-al.pdf </p>
<p>2.Anilakumar, K. R., Pal, A., Khanum, F., & Bawa, A. S. (2010). Nutritional, medicinal, and industrial uses of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) seeds: An overview. Agriculture and Scientific Perspectives, 75(4), 159–168. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/50870025_Nutritional_Medicinal_and_Industrial_Uses_of_Sesame_Sesamum_indicum_L_Seeds_-_An_Overview</p>
<p>3.Egonyu, J. P., Kyamanywa, S., Anyanga, W., & Ssekabembe, C. K. (2005). Review of pests and diseases of sesame in Uganda. In African Crop Science Conference Proceedings 7(3), 1411–1416.</p>
<p>4.FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (2021). Statistical database. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL</p>
<p>5.Harvey, C. A., Rakotobe, Z. L., Rao, N. S., Dave, R., Razafimahatratra, H., Rabarijohn, R. H., & MacKinnon, J. L. (2014). Extreme vulnerability of smallholder farmers to agricultural risks and climate change in Madagascar. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1639), 20130089. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0089 </p>
<p>6.Hata, N., Hayashi, Y., Okazawa, A., Ono, E., Satake, H., & Kobayashi, A. (2010). Comparison of sesamin contents and CYP81Q1 gene expressions in aboveground vegetative organs between two Japanese sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) varieties differing in seed sesamin contents. Plant Science, 178(6), 510–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2010.02.020</p>
<p>7.Hess, D. E., & Dodo, H. (2004). Potential for sesame to contribute to integrated control of Striga hermonthica in the West African Sahel. Crop Protection, 23(6), 515–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2003.10.008</p>
<p>8.Ijoyah, M. O., Anyogo, J. O., & Ugese, F. D. (2016). Yield response of maize (Zea mays L.) and sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) intercrop as influenced by planting densities and varieties of sesame at Makurdi, Nigeria. World Scientific News, 37, 25–49. https://worldscientificnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/WSN-37-2016-25-49.pdf </p>
<p>9.Islam, A., Gill, R. A., Ali, B., Farooq, M. A., Xu, L., Najeeb, U., & Zhou, W. (2016). Sesame. In S. K. Gupta (Ed.), Breeding oilseed crops for sustainable production (pp. 135–147). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801309-0.00006-9</p>
<p>10.Olowe, V. I. O., & Adeyemo, A. Y. (2009). Enhanced crop productivity and compatibility through intercropping of sesame and sunflower varieties. Annals of Applied Biology, 155(2), 285–291. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7348.2009.00340.x</p>
<p>11.Terefe, G., Wakjira, A., Berhe, M., & Tadesse, H. (2012). Sesame production manual. Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research & Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Muez-Berhe/publication/301771324_Sesame_production_manual/links/5733adee08ae298602dcefd3/Sesame-production-manual.pdf</p>
<p>12.Wacal, C., Basalirwa, D., Okello–Anyanga, W., Murongo, M. F., Namirembe, C., & Malingumu, R. (2021). Analysis of sesame seed production and export trends; challenges and strategies towards increasing production in Uganda. Oilseeds and Fats, Crops and Lipids, 28, 4. https://dir.muni.ac.ug:8443/server/api/core/bitstreams/7d2668f1-000e-43f6-bc4b-00bc75617665/content </p>
<p>13.Wacal, C., Musinguzi, S. P., Ewaju, E., Atibo, C., Alowo, D., Alipa, J., & Basalirwa, D. (2024). Unravelling the potential benefits of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) in cropping systems, nutritional, health, and industrial uses of its seeds – a review. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2024.2360766</p>
<p>14.Wu, W. H. (2007). The contents of lignans in commercial sesame oils of Taiwan and their changes during heating. Food Chemistry, 104(1), 341–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.11.055</p>
<p>15.Yadav, S., Yadav, A., & Singh, D. (2016). Insect pests of Sesamum indicum – A review. Indian Research Journal of Genetics and Biotechnology, 8(1), 71–76. https://www.irjgbt.in/index.php/IRJGBT/article/view/291/244 </p>
<p>16.Yogranjan, S., G. K., Marabi, R. S., Mishra, M. K., & Mishra, S. P. (2014). Global resurgence of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) utilization: A current scenario. Indo-American Journal of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences, 2(3), 2321–9602. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/documentrepid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=7451cf617b5bbebce23c605e097807c29fe6ad5a 
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