View source for How-pigeon-peas-can-combat-drought

<div>
 <div class="title"><h3>5.37 -How Pigeon Peas can Combat Drought </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Connor Watson, University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.jpg|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Watson,C. (2022) How Pigeon Peas can Combat Drought, In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
       <h3 class="title-bg">Issues we are facing today in agriculture </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
          <p>Low-medium income countries experiencing higher air temperatures and more severe/ more frequent droughts associated with climate change are located in the Middle East, Asia, and Africa (IPCC, 2018). Over sixty percent of the world’s population relies on agriculture for survival (FAO, 2014). Without water, crops cannot survive. There are some crops that require less water and can survive these increased temperatures (Grayson, 2013). One crop in particular that can survive these harsh growing conditions is pigeon pea (Cajanus Cajun).</p>
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>Pigeon pea is a perennial shrub originating in India thousands of years ago; the shrub grows from 0.5 to 4 meters in size and its lifespan consists of about 5 years (ICRISAT, 2017). The shrub comes from a small seed and usually requires 4-8 months before harvest. The pigeon pea is a very special plant because it can grow in diverse environments, is very drought tolerant, high in protein/nutrients, and hence holds promise for wider adoption by farmers jeopardized by increasing drought. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in India is a global breeding institute for pigeon pea and has 13783 different seed accessions in its seedbank from which public organizations can request seed (ICRISAT, 2017).</p>
 </div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Growing Pigeon Peas </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>Pigeon pea will grow in diverse environments with little water and in poor nutrient soils (ICRISAT, 2017). A special feature of pigeon pea is that it is a legume which can associate with nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into ammonia fertilizer, thus reducing nitrogen fertilizer input requirements.  A second feature is that pigeon pea roots are deep and secrete organic acids to solubilize rock phosphate. These two traits result in pigeon pea being able to grow on degraded soils (ICRISAT, 2017). Pigeon pea grows from seeds, making it very cheap to purchase, and little to no experience is necessary. Because of its versatility, the planting depth of the seed is very flexible; the seeds usually take about 2 to 3 weeks to germinate (FAO, 2019). However, growth will not be evident for about 3 months; growth during the first 3 months is rather slow but then will accelerate. Although pigeon pea is very versatile, the optimal growing conditions consist of soil with a neutral pH range from 5 to 7. Optimal soil also includes the presence of organic matter, 10-13 kg of urea and 40-45 kg of phosphate per acre. Generally, pigeon pea likes a moist soil profile for the first 8 weeks; after that, the legume requires drier conditions through the stages of pod development and flowering. The average rainfall for growing pigeon pea ranges from 600 to 650 mm. Too much rainfall through the flowering stage can result in poor pollination resulting in a possible reduction in crop yields. The ideal temperature for growth ranges from 25 to 35 degrees Celsius, but it can survive as low as 15 degrees Celsius and as high as 40 degrees Celsius. Controlling weeds improves growth especially before planting and 3 weeks after planting to minimize competition for nutrients (FAO, 2019).</p>
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Harvest </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>The first harvest ranges from 4-8 months depending on the variety and growing environment (Greenlife Crop Protection Africa, 2018). Pigeon pea plants are short-day plants, requiring 12.5 hours of sunlight per day to produce flowers and hence seeds (Plant guide, 2012). When the plants have green colored leaves and pods. the farmer can harvest them for use as vegetables. If the farmer chooses to use the peas as grain, the pods must be brown and dry to harvest. Heavy clusters form at the end of the branches allowing the farmer to either pick the clusters green or let them hang for a longer duration to dry the peas. In small scale production, harvesting can be done by hand. Yields of pigeon peas average about 700 kg per hectare (ICRISAT, 2017).</p>
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Plant Preparation  </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>In order to prepare the plant for the next harvest, one must prune the branches back to strengthen and encourage new growth within the plant. One pigeon pea plant usually lasts 5 years before new seeds have to be planted, bringing many nutritious meals at a very low cost. 
(ICRISAT, 2017).</p>
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Health Benefits and Nutritional Facts  </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>There are many benefits that pigeon peas have on the human body upon consumption. Pigeon peas are high in potassium which dilates blood allowing it to flow more easily throughout the body resulting in reduced blood pressure. The legume is also very high in protein content (22.4 g/100 g) that is required for growth and development, contributing to the formation of bones, cells, tissues, and muscles (Talari and Shakappa, 2018). Pigeon peas can also prevent anemia by providing an adequate amount of iron (5.37±1.36 g/100 g) found in just a single serving (Talari, Shakappa, 2018). Due to the low number of calories (120 g/100 g), cholesterol (0 g/100 g), saturated fats (0.06 g/100 g) and the presence of dietary fiber (6.5 g/100 g) that keeps the body full for long periods, pigeon peas have been to help with weight loss (USDA, 2016) which is an increasing problem in South Asia. Other nutritional facts include: potassium (0.38 g/100 g), Vitamin A (0.1%), iron (10%) and calcium (7.2%) (USDA, 2016). 
*All percentages are based on a 2000 calorie diet.</p>
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Consumption  </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>Around the world, pigeon peas are consumed in different ways; In India, for example, pigeon peas are used as dhal, a traditional soup-like dish made from various split legumes. In Indonesia, the pigeon peas are combined with spices, shrimp paste, lemongrass and other ingredients forming a soup called Jukut Undis. (FAO, 2016). Throughout Africa many dishes are made using pigeon peas and seem to be quite easy to prepare to an extent. The first one is called Mchuzi wa Mbaaz or “pigeon pea stew” and is eaten with starchy meals such as Ugali, rice or chapatti (FAO, 2018). Kimanga cha Mihogo (mashed Cassava and pigeon peas) is a traditional dish of the Kimanga among the lowland Taita community and other drier parts of the Taita bordering the Kamba community (Kenya). This meal is enjoyed throughout the drought seasons because it is filling (FAO, 2018). Nyenyi (Mashed Pigeon Peas & Green Maize) is a traditional delicacy among the Embu community (Kenya).  It consists of mashed potatoes, green maize, and pigeon peas and is served as lunch or dinner. Traditionally the dish is eaten dry, however, in modern times it is eaten as stews (FAO, 2018).</p>
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Global Market</h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
 <p>From 2012-2014. global production of pigeon peas stood at 4.4 million tonnes; this consisted of about 5.8% of pulse production in the world (FAO, 2019). Over the last 4 decades, pigeon pea production has been rather slow, being grown only in Asia, southeast Africa, and the Caribbean. Currently, there are roughly 19 different varieties of pigeon peas in eastern and southern Africa alone. ICRISAT has recently released 57 new pigeon pea varieties including various high yielding hybrid varieties (FAO, 2019). Each variety varies for crop duration, seed color, disease/pest resistance, and pod load. The development of short-duration varieties has made it possible to include pigeon pea in crop cycles with two crops in a year. Examples of this are found through intercropping with crops such as sorghum, maize, millets, and pulses like mung bean and urd bean (FAO, 2019).</p>
<p>Pigeon peas are traded on the global market with the leading producer being India with 3 million tonnes annually (FAO, 2019). Pigeon pea seeds can be purchased for $11.30/kg USD in India (India Mart, 2019). The average sales price for pigeon pea seeds in India in 2019 was Rs 140/kg which is $1.94/kg USD (India Mart, 2019).</p> 
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Profit for Farmers and Government Marketing Strategy </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>Government-regulated contract farming is a strategy currently being performed in Malawi in East Africa to ensure that farmers have a market for their crops before planting which is critical to wider adoption of any crop. This strategy is allowing farmers to negotiate with producers for better prices with the support of the government as a controller. The issue that many farmers have raised before this program is that middlemen were purchasing the crops and taking a large percentage of the profits, leaving the farmer with less money compared to selling direct (Phiri, 2015). A 2012 study performed in Tanzania, in East Africa, showed that farmers made between 25 to 40 Tshs/kg (0.011- 0.017 USD/kg) for pigeon pea grain (ICRISAT, 2013). Farmers are often times not maximizing their profits, however, because of middlemen. Farmers should be encouraged to maximize incomes through value addition of pigeon pea, because the real profit in agriculture is not from primary production but from post- harvest processing (value addition).</p>
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Other Uses of Pigeon Peas </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>Although pigeon peas are very high in protein and are a great source of nutrients, they also have many other uses besides human consumption (ICRISAT, 2010). During the stage of plant preparation, the pigeon pea shrubs are pruned back aggressively to encourage new growth; when this happens the pruning’s fall to the ground where they are a very good source of organic nitrogen fertilizer following decomposition. The leaves that fall are also a very good way to feed livestock, high in nutrients and only costing the farmer time. The pigeon pea shrub is also a great source of firewood: the sticks and brush can be used for cooking and hold heat well, producing energy at the rate of 4350 Kcal/hour (ICRISAT, 2010).</p>
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Critical analysis </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>A few common diseases that affect pigeon pea include collar rot, Phytophthora Blight, Fusarium Wilt, Dry Root Rot and Phoma Stem Canker. Below is a link to the “Handbook of Pigeon Pea Diseases” which provides a full description of every disease discovered by man in pigeon peas as well as the underlying pathogen and where they are most likely found (ICRISAT, 1993). Another issue surrounding the crop includes timely cooking; when a woman begins to cook for her family, she must first make a fire using wood which must be collected, potentially from great distances, especially in the very dry subtropics. One solution to this challenge is to encourage cooking using pressure cookers. In South Asia, for example, many people have adopted this practice, saving them time as well as the ability to keep food warm for long periods of time (Marcus, 2013).</p> 
</div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">Helpful Videos and Links </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hpd_7JNiWkM
Above is a link to a YouTube video with some addition information from a young farmer.</p>  

<p>https://www.roysfarm.com/growing-pigeon-pea/
Attached above is a link to a full beginner’s guide showing step by step instructions on the basics of growing, planting, requirements for survival, and fun facts about the crop.</p>  

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g_gRHbWuVNQ&t=174s
This YouTube link was a great tutorial/ visual for the harvesting of pigeon peas.</p> 

<p>http://www.fao.org/3/I9056EN/i9056en.pdf
Above is a link to a great recipe book with several pigeon pea recipes, enjoy!</p> 

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=APnsunmDbwM
Short, easy recipe to a pigeon pea stew</p> 

<p>http://oar.icrisat.org/1245/1/HandbookOfPigeonpeaDiseases.pdf
A complete guide for pigeon pea diseases and viruses. </p> 
 </div>
   </div>
 <div style="margin-top: 30px;">
       <h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
        <div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.	Indiamart (2019) Online retailer. Pigeon pea seeds. Available at: https://dir.indiamart.com/search.mp?ss=pigeon+peas&prdsrc=1&search_type=p [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>
<p>2.	Grayson, M. (2013) Agriculture and drought. Nature 501 (7468): S1. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/501S1a.pdf [Accessed November 7, 2019]</p>

<p>3.	ICRISAT (2013) A Value Chain Analysis for Pigeon Pea in the Southern Regions of Tanzania. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India.
	Available at: http://oar.icrisat.org/7955/1/ISEDPS_17.pdf [Accessed November 7, 2019]</p>

<p>4.	FAO (2019) The Global Economy of Pulses. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/i7108en/I7108EN.pdf [Accessed November 10, 2019]</p>

<p>5.	FAO (2018) Kenya Food Recipes. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/I9056EN/i9056en.pdf [Accessed November 10, 2019]</p>

<p>6.	ICRISAT (2010) Pigeon pea A Resilient crop for the Philippine Drylands. Role of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in human nutrition and health ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India. Available at : http://oar.icrisat.org/3557/1/Pigeonpea-resilient-crop.pdf [Accessed November 7, 2019]</p>

<p>7.	ICRISAT (2017) Pigeonpea Dashboard. Role of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in human nutrition and health. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India.  Available at: http://genebank.icrisat.org/IND/Dashboard?Crop=Pigeonpea [Accessed November 13, 2019]</p>

<p>8.	Talari, A. and Shakappa, D. (2018) Role of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) in human nutrition and health: A review. Asian Journal Of Dairy and Food Research.2018.(37):212-220 Available at: https://www-cabdirect-org.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/cabdirect/FullTextPDF/2018/20183343354.pdf [Accessed November 13, 2019]</p>

<p>9.	Grace Phiri (2015) Govt in contract farming strategy for pigeon peas. Available at: https://mwnation.com/govt-in-contract-farming-strategy-for-pigeon-peas/ [Accessed November 20, 2019]</p>

<p>10.	FAO (2016) Jukut Undis (Black Pigeon peas Soup). RAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/a-bl901e.pdf [Accessed November 20, 2019]</p>
<p>11.	USDA (2016) Pigeon peas (red gram), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt - 1 cup. Available at: https://www.nutritionix.com/i/usda/pigeon-peas-red-gram-mature-seeds-cooked-boiled-without-salt-1-cup/513fceb675b8dbbc2100220f [Accessed November 20, 2019]</p>

<p>12.	Greenlife Crop Protection Africa (2018). Available at: https://www.greenlife.co.ke/pigeon-peas-production/ [Accessed November 20, 2019]</p>

<p>13.	Plant Guide (2012) Pigeonpea Plant Guide. Available at: https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_caca27.pdf  [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>

<p>14.	IPCC (2018) Impacts of 1.5 degrees Celsius global warming on natural and human systems. Available at: https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/chapter-3/ [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>

<p>15.	FAO (2014) Agriculture Remains Central to the World Economy. 60% of the Population Depends on Agriculture for Survival. FAO, Rome. Available at: http://www.expo2015.org/magazine/en/economy/agriculture-remains-central-to-the-world-economy.html [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>

<p>16.	ICRISAT (1993) Handbook of Pigeonpea Diseases. ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/pressure-cooking [Accessed November 11, 2019]</p>