Farmpedia – Agricultural Encyclopedia for Farmers - User contributions [en]

Main Page

2026-04-20T09:08:51Z

Mamta:

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Farmpedia – Free Agricultural Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers}}
<div class="hero-img">
[[File:Hero-img-3.webp|alt=Farmpedia – free agricultural encyclopedia for small scale farmers in developing nations]]
</div>

<div class="banner-cont" style="padding:35px 25px;background-color: #fff;">
<p> Farmpedia is an online, free, open-access encyclopedia of sustainable, low cost, gender-friendly solutions to empower small scale (smallholder) farmers in developing nations. There are 236 chapters and growing. Using the left Toolbar, chapters can be translated into 108 languages and downloaded. Edited by Professor Manish N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. </p>
</div>
<div class="about-section" style="padding:30px 25px; background-color:#f9f9f9; border-top:1px solid #e0e0e0;">

<h2>About Farmpedia</h2>

<p>Farmpedia is built for the estimated 500 million smallholder farmers worldwide who manage farms of less than two hectares. These farmers produce approximately 70% of the food consumed in developing nations, yet they often lack access to affordable, reliable agricultural knowledge. Farmpedia bridges that gap by providing free, open-access guides written in plain language and reviewed by agricultural scientists.</p>

<p>Every chapter on Farmpedia focuses on low-cost, sustainable solutions that can be implemented with locally available materials. Whether you are managing soil erosion on a hillside farm in East Africa, storing grain after harvest in South Asia, or protecting your crops from pests without expensive chemicals, Farmpedia has practical, science-backed guidance tailored to real farming conditions.</p>

<h2>How to Use Farmpedia</h2>

<p>Browse the sections below to find topics relevant to your farm. Each section contains multiple chapters covering specific techniques, tools, and practices. Use the translation toolbar on the left to read any chapter in your preferred language — over 108 languages are supported. You can also download chapters for offline reading, which is especially useful in areas with limited internet connectivity.</p>

<p>Farmpedia is freely editable by registered users. If you are an agricultural researcher, extension officer, or experienced farmer, we welcome your contributions. New chapters and updates are continuously reviewed to maintain accuracy and practical relevance.</p>

<h2>Why Sustainable, Low-Cost Farming Matters</h2>

<p>Small-scale farmers face increasing pressure from climate change, soil degradation, water scarcity, and rising input costs. Conventional farming advice often assumes access to expensive machinery, chemical inputs, or irrigation infrastructure that most smallholder farmers cannot afford. Farmpedia specifically curates techniques that work within the constraints of low-resource farming environments, helping farmers increase yields, reduce losses, and improve household nutrition without taking on financial risk.</p>

<p>Topics covered include land preparation, water harvesting, composting, integrated pest management, post-harvest storage, livestock health, and much more. The encyclopedia is edited by Professor Manish N. Raizada of the University of Guelph, Canada, and draws on decades of agricultural research conducted in partnership with farming communities across Africa, Asia, and Latin America.</p>

</div>

<div class="home">
<div class="ch-1">
<h2 class="ch-title">Sections</h2>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:C2.webp|360px|alt=Land preparation and sowing techniques for small scale farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 1 (11 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Land preparation and Sowing</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Land-preparation-and-sowing|Land Preparation and Sowing]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:C1.webp|360px|alt=Crop and tree intensification methods for sustainable smallholder farming]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 2 (16 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Crop and Tree Intensification</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Crop-and-tree-intensification|Crop and Tree Intensification]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-4.webp|360px|alt=Terrace and hillside agriculture for erosion control and sustainable farming]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 3 (5 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Terrace agriculture</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Terrace-and-hillside-agriculture|Terrace and Hillside Agriculture]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="ch-2">
<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-5.webp|360px|alt=Soil health management including composting and soil testing for small scale farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 4 (30 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Soil Health</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Soil-health|Soil Health]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-6.webp|360px|alt=Water and drought resiliency techniques including irrigation and rainwater harvesting]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 5 (68 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Water and Drought Resiliency</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Water-and-drought-resiliency|Water and Drought Resiliency]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-7.webp|360px|alt=Weed control methods for small scale farmers including manual and organic techniques]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 6 (11 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Weed Control</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Weed-control|Weed Control]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="ch-1">
<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-8.webp|360px|alt=Crop pest and disease control using integrated pest management for smallholder farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 7 (19 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Crop Pest and Disease Control</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Crop-pest-and-disease-control|Crop Pest and Disease Control]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-9.webp|360px|alt=Post harvest technologies and value addition to reduce losses and increase farm income]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 8 (61 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Post Harvest Technologies and Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Post-harvest-technologies-and-value-addition|Post Harvest Technologies and Value Addition]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-10.webp|360px|alt=Improving human nutrition and health through diverse and biofortified crops]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 9 (14 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Improving Human Nutrition & Health</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Improving-human-nutrition-health|Improving Human Nutrition and Health]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="ch-2">
<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-11.webp|360px|alt=Livestock poultry and fish health and productivity guides for small scale farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 10 (16 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Livestock, Poultry and Fish Health and Productivity</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Livestock-poultry-and-fish-health-and-productivity|Livestock, Poultry and Fish Health]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-12.webp|360px|alt=Crop breeding by farmers – participatory seed selection and variety improvement]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 11(2)</span>
<h2>Crop Breeding by Farmers</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Crop-breeding-by-farmers|Crop Breeding by Farmers]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-13.webp|360px|alt=Rural disaster relief and agricultural recovery for farmers after floods and droughts]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 12 (1 Chapter)</span>
<h2>Rural Disaster Relief</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Rural-disaster-relief|Rural Disaster Relief]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="ch-1">
<div class="row" style="display:flex; justify-content: space-between;padding:20px 25px 35px 25px;">
<div class="column">
<div class="card cards-2">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch.webp|360px|alt=Scientific method and socioeconomic training for evidence-based smallholder farming]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 13 (1 Chapter)</span>
<h2>Scientific Method, Social Economic & Training Method</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Scientific-method|Scientific Method and Training]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Main Page

2026-04-20T09:02:23Z

Mamta:

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Farmpedia – Free Agricultural Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers}}
<div class="hero-img">
[[File:Hero-img-3.webp|alt=Farmpedia – free agricultural encyclopedia for small scale farmers in developing nations]]
</div>

<div class="banner-cont" style="padding:35px 25px;background-color: #fff;">
<p> Farmpedia is an online, free, open-access encyclopedia of sustainable, low cost, gender-friendly solutions to empower small scale (smallholder) farmers in developing nations. There are 236 chapters and growing. Using the left Toolbar, chapters can be translated into 108 languages and downloaded. Edited by Professor Manish N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. </p>
</div>
<div class="about-section" style="padding:30px 25px; background-color:#f9f9f9; border-top:1px solid #e0e0e0;">

<h2>About Farmpedia</h2>

<p>Farmpedia is built for the estimated 500 million smallholder farmers worldwide who manage farms of less than two hectares. These farmers produce approximately 70% of the food consumed in developing nations, yet they often lack access to affordable, reliable agricultural knowledge. Farmpedia bridges that gap by providing free, open-access guides written in plain language and reviewed by agricultural scientists.</p>

<p>Every chapter on Farmpedia focuses on low-cost, sustainable solutions that can be implemented with locally available materials. Whether you are managing soil erosion on a hillside farm in East Africa, storing grain after harvest in South Asia, or protecting your crops from pests without expensive chemicals, Farmpedia has practical, science-backed guidance tailored to real farming conditions.</p>

<h2>How to Use Farmpedia</h2>

<p>Browse the sections below to find topics relevant to your farm. Each section contains multiple chapters covering specific techniques, tools, and practices. Use the translation toolbar on the left to read any chapter in your preferred language — over 108 languages are supported. You can also download chapters for offline reading, which is especially useful in areas with limited internet connectivity.</p>

<p>Farmpedia is freely editable by registered users. If you are an agricultural researcher, extension officer, or experienced farmer, we welcome your contributions. New chapters and updates are continuously reviewed to maintain accuracy and practical relevance.</p>

<h2>Why Sustainable, Low-Cost Farming Matters</h2>

<p>Small-scale farmers face increasing pressure from climate change, soil degradation, water scarcity, and rising input costs. Conventional farming advice often assumes access to expensive machinery, chemical inputs, or irrigation infrastructure that most smallholder farmers cannot afford. Farmpedia specifically curates techniques that work within the constraints of low-resource farming environments, helping farmers increase yields, reduce losses, and improve household nutrition without taking on financial risk.</p>

<p>Topics covered include land preparation, water harvesting, composting, integrated pest management, post-harvest storage, livestock health, and much more. The encyclopedia is edited by Professor Manish N. Raizada of the University of Guelph, Canada, and draws on decades of agricultural research conducted in partnership with farming communities across Africa, Asia, and Latin America.</p>

</div>

<div class="home">
<div class="ch-1">
<h2 class="ch-title">Sections</h2>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:C2.webp|360px|alt=Land preparation and sowing techniques for small scale farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 1 (11 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Land preparation and Sowing</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Land-preparation-and-sowing|Land Preparation and Sowing]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:C1.webp|360px|alt=Crop and tree intensification methods for sustainable smallholder farming]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 2 (16 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Crop and Tree Intensification</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Crop-and-tree-intensification|Crop and Tree Intensification]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-4.webp|360px|alt=Terrace and hillside agriculture for erosion control and sustainable farming]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 3 (5 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Terrace agriculture</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Terrace-and-hillside-agriculture|Terrace and Hillside Agriculture]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="ch-2">
<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-5.webp|360px|alt=Soil health management including composting and soil testing for small scale farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 4 (30 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Soil Health</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Soil-health|Soil Health]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-6.webp|360px|alt=Water and drought resiliency techniques including irrigation and rainwater harvesting]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 5 (68 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Water and Drought Resiliency</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Water-and-drought-resiliency|Water and Drought Resiliency]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-7.webp|360px|alt=Weed control methods for small scale farmers including manual and organic techniques]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 6 (11 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Weed Control</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Weed-control|Weed Control]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="ch-1">
<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-8.webp|360px|alt=Crop pest and disease control using integrated pest management for smallholder farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 7 (19 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Crop Pest and Disease Control</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Crop-pest-and-disease-control|Crop Pest and Disease Control]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-9.webp|360px|alt=Post harvest technologies and value addition to reduce losses and increase farm income]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 8 (61 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Post Harvest Technologies and Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Post-harvest-technologies-and-value-addition|Post Harvest Technologies and Value Addition]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-10.webp|360px|alt=Improving human nutrition and health through diverse and biofortified crops]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 9 (14 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Improving Human Nutrition & Health</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Improving-human-nutrition-health|Improving Human Nutrition and Health]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="ch-2">
<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-11.webp|360px|alt=Livestock poultry and fish health and productivity guides for small scale farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 10 (16 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Livestock, Poultry and Fish Health and Productivity</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[[Livestock-poultry-and-fish-health-and-productivity|Livestock, Poultry and Fish Health]]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-12.webp|360px|alt=Crop breeding by farmers – participatory seed selection and variety improvement]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 11(2)</span>
<h2>Crop Breeding by Farmers</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Crop-breeding-by-farmers Crop Breeding by Farmers]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-13.webp|360px|alt=Rural disaster relief and agricultural recovery for farmers after floods and droughts]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 12 (1 Chapter)</span>
<h2>Rural Disaster Relief</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Rural-disaster-relief Rural Disaster Relief]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="ch-1">
<div class="row" style="display:flex; justify-content: space-between;padding:20px 25px 35px 25px;">
<div class="column">
<div class="card cards-2">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch.webp|360px|alt=Scientific method and socioeconomic training for evidence-based smallholder farming]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 13 (1 Chapter)</span>
<h2>Scientific Method, Social Economic & Training Method</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Scientific-method Scientific Method and Training]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Main Page

2026-04-20T08:53:35Z

Mamta:

{{DISPLAYTITLE:Farmpedia – Free Agricultural Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers}}
<div class="hero-img">
[[File:Hero-img-3.webp|alt=Farmpedia – free agricultural encyclopedia for small scale farmers in developing nations]]
</div>

<div class="banner-cont" style="padding:35px 25px;background-color: #fff;">
<p> Farmpedia is an online, free, open-access encyclopedia of sustainable, low cost, gender-friendly solutions to empower small scale (smallholder) farmers in developing nations. There are 236 chapters and growing. Using the left Toolbar, chapters can be translated into 108 languages and downloaded. Edited by Professor Manish N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. </p>
</div>
<div class="about-section" style="padding:30px 25px; background-color:#f9f9f9; border-top:1px solid #e0e0e0;">

<h2>About Farmpedia</h2>

<p>Farmpedia is built for the estimated 500 million smallholder farmers worldwide who manage farms of less than two hectares. These farmers produce approximately 70% of the food consumed in developing nations, yet they often lack access to affordable, reliable agricultural knowledge. Farmpedia bridges that gap by providing free, open-access guides written in plain language and reviewed by agricultural scientists.</p>

<p>Every chapter on Farmpedia focuses on low-cost, sustainable solutions that can be implemented with locally available materials. Whether you are managing soil erosion on a hillside farm in East Africa, storing grain after harvest in South Asia, or protecting your crops from pests without expensive chemicals, Farmpedia has practical, science-backed guidance tailored to real farming conditions.</p>

<h2>How to Use Farmpedia</h2>

<p>Browse the sections below to find topics relevant to your farm. Each section contains multiple chapters covering specific techniques, tools, and practices. Use the translation toolbar on the left to read any chapter in your preferred language — over 108 languages are supported. You can also download chapters for offline reading, which is especially useful in areas with limited internet connectivity.</p>

<p>Farmpedia is freely editable by registered users. If you are an agricultural researcher, extension officer, or experienced farmer, we welcome your contributions. New chapters and updates are continuously reviewed to maintain accuracy and practical relevance.</p>

<h2>Why Sustainable, Low-Cost Farming Matters</h2>

<p>Small-scale farmers face increasing pressure from climate change, soil degradation, water scarcity, and rising input costs. Conventional farming advice often assumes access to expensive machinery, chemical inputs, or irrigation infrastructure that most smallholder farmers cannot afford. Farmpedia specifically curates techniques that work within the constraints of low-resource farming environments, helping farmers increase yields, reduce losses, and improve household nutrition without taking on financial risk.</p>

<p>Topics covered include land preparation, water harvesting, composting, integrated pest management, post-harvest storage, livestock health, and much more. The encyclopedia is edited by Professor Manish N. Raizada of the University of Guelph, Canada, and draws on decades of agricultural research conducted in partnership with farming communities across Africa, Asia, and Latin America.</p>

</div>

<div class="home">
<div class="ch-1">
<h2 class="ch-title">Sections</h2>

<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:C2.webp|360px|alt=Land preparation and sowing techniques for small scale farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 1 (11 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Land preparation and Sowing</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Land-preparation-and-sowing Land Preparation and Sowing]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:C1.webp|360px|alt=Crop and tree intensification methods for sustainable smallholder farming]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 2 (16 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Crop and Tree Intensification</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Crop-and-tree-intensification Crop and Tree Intensification]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-4.webp|360px|alt=Terrace and hillside agriculture for erosion control and sustainable farming]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 3 (5 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Terrace agriculture</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Terrace-and-hillside-agriculture Terrace and Hillside Agriculture]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="ch-2">
<div class="row">
<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-5.webp|360px|alt=Soil health management including composting and soil testing for small scale farmers]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 4 (30 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Soil Health</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Soil-health Soil Health]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-6.webp|360px|alt=Water and drought resiliency techniques including irrigation and rainwater harvesting]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 5 (68 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Water and Drought Resiliency</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Water-and-drought-resiliency Water and Drought Resiliency]</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>

<div class="column">
<div class="card">
<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-7.webp|360px|alt=Weed control methods for small scale farmers including manual and organic techniques]]</div>
<div class="cha-cont">
<span class="cha-title">Section 6 (11 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Weed Control</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
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<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-8.webp|360px|alt=Crop pest and disease control using integrated pest management for smallholder farmers]]</div>
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<span class="cha-title">Section 7 (19 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Crop Pest and Disease Control</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Crop-pest-and-disease-control Crop Pest and Disease Control]</div>
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<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-9.webp|360px|alt=Post harvest technologies and value addition to reduce losses and increase farm income]]</div>
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<span class="cha-title">Section 8 (61 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Post Harvest Technologies and Value Addition</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Post-harvest-technologies-and-value-addition Post Harvest Technologies and Value Addition]</div>
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<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-10.webp|360px|alt=Improving human nutrition and health through diverse and biofortified crops]]</div>
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<span class="cha-title">Section 9 (14 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Improving Human Nutrition & Health</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Improving-human-nutrition-health Improving Human Nutrition and Health]</div>
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<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-11.webp|360px|alt=Livestock poultry and fish health and productivity guides for small scale farmers]]</div>
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<span class="cha-title">Section 10 (16 Chapters)</span>
<h2>Livestock, Poultry and Fish Health and Productivity</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Livestock-poultry-and-fish-health-and-productivity Livestock, Poultry and Fish Health]</div>
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<div class="fakeimg">[[File:Img-ch-12.webp|360px|alt=Crop breeding by farmers – participatory seed selection and variety improvement]]</div>
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<span class="cha-title">Section 11(2)</span>
<h2>Crop Breeding by Farmers</h2>
<div class="btn-grp">
<div class="btn btn-2">[https://demo.farmpedia.org/Crop-breeding-by-farmers Crop Breeding by Farmers]</div>
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<span class="cha-title">Section 12 (1 Chapter)</span>
<h2>Rural Disaster Relief</h2>
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<h2>Scientific Method, Social Economic & Training Method</h2>
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Electric-groundnut-Peanut-shellers-for-small-scale-farmers

2026-04-15T14:45:52Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.59-Electric Groundnut (Peanut) Shellers for Small Scale Farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Finn Grace , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:User 4.webp|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p> Grace,G. (2022) Electric Groundnut (Peanut) Shellers for Small Scale Farmers, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">How Does it Help Smallholder Farmers </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Prior to consumption, the hard shell around groundnuts (peanuts) must be removed, but this is a burden for small scale farmers. Manual groundnut shelling is a “high kernel breakage” and “low shelling efficiency” process (Otieno, 2009). This causes smallholder farmers to lose significant profits due to the low income associated with broken groundnut kernels. Not only does manual shelling affect the yield of intact kernels, resulting in a loss of profit, but it is also a time-consuming, labor-intensive process (Otieno, 2009). Manual shelling significantly impacts the physical health of smallholder farmers, particularly African women, who comprise around 46% of the agricultural labor force across different African nations (Due & Gladwin, 1991). These farmers suffer from extreme heat (Frimpong et al., 2016), pain in muscles and bones, and other chronic musculoskeletal pain (Naidoo et al., 2009). The electrical groundnut sheller is designed to make the time-consuming process of groundnut shelling more efficient and less laborious (Shukla, 2014). This is achieved by an electrically based machine with various parts working together to achieve the goal of adequately shelled groundnuts (Iqbal et al., 2019); different models of this machine are displayed in Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4. </p>
<p><b>Step-by-step instructions on how to operate an electrical groundnut sheller </b></p>
<p>Step 1. Preparation: Ensure the shelling machine is clean and working (KMEC, 2021).</p>
<p>Step 2. Loading Groundnuts: Add groundnuts to the hopper (see Figure 1 for a description of a hopper) and distribute them evenly into the machine.</p>
<p>Step 3. Start Machine: Locate the power switch and start up the machine.</p>
<p>Step 4. Shelling Process and Monitoring: The machine will shell the groundnuts, separating the shell from the kernels. The unwanted shells will be blown from the machine, and the kernels will be left in a separate container.</p>
<p>Step 5. Collecting: Collect shelled groundnuts from the container and dispose of groundnut shells (KMEC, 2021).</p>
<p>[[File:User 3.webp]]</p>
<p>Figure 1 . Components of a small-medium-sized electrical groundnut sheller (Source: Iqbal et al., 2019)..</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Different Models and Costs of Electrical Groundnut Shellers and Where to Get Them </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Groundnut shellers come in many different sizes and models; small-medium scale models are similar to those in Figure 2, and large-scale models like the sheller in Figure 3. The global Chinese supplier “Made-in-China” sells shelling models of different sizes and power, and ships them globally (Made-in-China, 2024). Made-in-China sells a “Mini family use peanut shell removing huller groundnut peeling machine” (See Figure 2) for between $900-$2000 USD (Made-in-China, 2024-A). This shelling machine has a shelling capacity of 200 kg/hour and a threshing rate (rate machine can separate groundnuts from their shell) of 98%. The website also sells larger-scale shelling machines, such as the “Automatic separating teaseeds groundnut sheller nut huller peanut shelling machine” (See Fgure 3) for $4800-5500 USD. This sheller has a 200-300 kg/hour capacity and a threshing rate above 98% (Made-in-China, 2024-B).</p>
<p>[[File:User 4.webp]]</p>
<p>Figure 2. Electrical groundnut sheller (small-medium scale), sold by “Made-in-China” (Source: Made-in-China, 2024b). Visit the Made-in-China website to see in-depth breaks of prices, data, advantages, safety and operational manuals, etc.</p>
<p>[[File:User 5.webp]]</p>
<p>Figure 3. Electrical groundnut sheller (large-scale), sold by “Made-in-China” (Source: Made-in-China, 2024a). Visit the Made-in-China website to see in-depth breaks of prices, data, advantages, safety and operational manuals, etc. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">The Positive Impacts of Electrical Groundnut Shellers on Small Holder Farmers </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Electrical groundnut shellers are believed to be a better option for farmers than manual machines (Raghtate et al., 2014) and compared to manual hand-shelling, which has “low shelling efficiencies” (Otieno, 2009). In Tanzania, groundnuts are a valuable oil, food, and income source for many African farmers (Ndossi et al., 2022). However, the crop is labor-intensive. A study found that introducing LST (labor-saving technologies) had an immediate positive impact on farmers' groundnut production, with farmers having 45.2% of time saved using shelling machines, 35.7% less labor cost, and 11.9% found work was made easier (Ndossi et al., 2022). </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Electric sheller compared to manual shelling: Productivity/yield results and physical labor impacts </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The article “Design and Fabrication of Groundnut Sheller Machine” concluded that the electrical sheller is the best option for farmers compared to manual shelling techniques of groundnuts (Raghtate et al., 2014). The study first had workers try different manual shelling methods; this included hand shelling and using a rolling pin to crush shells in a cloth bag. These processes, especially hand shelling, were classified as “low-output, time-consuming processes” that had the workers in uncomfortable positions, hindering their physical well-being. Multiple tests of a newly fabricated shelling machine (see Figure 4) were done to analyze and assess the machine's efficiency and productivity (Raghtate et al., 2014). The final results of the tests conducted using the machine in Figure 4 showed that the shelling device demonstrated 81.2% shelling efficiency and 79.93% material efficiency compared to the other methods tested in this report, e.g., manual methods like hand shelling (Raghtate et al., 2014).</p>
<p>[[File:User 7.webp]]</p>
<p>Figure 5. African small-holder farmer posture when shelling groundnuts (Source: Ogega, 2023).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Cost-Benefit Analysis of Electrical Groundnut Sheller </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Electrical groundnut shellers have significant potential to increase usable yields (Raghtate et al., 2014), reduce labor time (Ndossi et al., 2022), and assist in preserving smallholder farmers' physical health (Shukla, 2014), especially the health of African women, who make up a substantial portion of the agriculture workforce across the continent (Due & Gladwin, 1991). As discussed above, the electric sheller's ability to increase shelling and material efficiency (Raghtate et al., 2014) and smallholder farmers' income via intact shelled kernels (these intact kernels are in high demand around the world) make it an advantageous LST (Labor Saving Technology) (Ndossi et al., 2022). That said, there are two significant constraints to adopting the electrical groundnut sheller that smallholder farmers need help overcoming. The cost of the electrical groundnut sheller is an obvious hurdle for low-income, low-resource farmers. Even small-medium shellers (see Figure 2) cost anywhere from $900 -$2000 USD, and large shellers cost around $4800-$5500 USD (Made-in-China, 2024a), both these model types being out of budget for many African smallholder farmers (Rapsomanikis, 2015). Another issue with the electrical groundnut sheller is the need for electricity. As of 2011, the electrical generation capacity in Sub-Saharan Africa averaged 37MW (Megawatts)/million people (Livingston et al., 2011). Since a small electrical sheller uses about 0.00075MW-0.0015MW per hour (Made-in-China, 2024a) (see Box 1 for how these numbers were calculated below), these shellers aren’t very sustainable for remote African smallholder farmers to use.</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Solutions</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Cost Solution:</b></p>
<p>Using the country of Kenya as an example, the average smallholder family earns around $2527 USD in gross yearly income (Rapsomanikis, 2015). Obviously, with the cost of shellers, even the cheapest models are only affordable for some African farmers. However, there are solutions. By introducing methods such as cost-sharing amongst farmer groups/cooperatives, farmers can pool resources together to strengthen their economic situation (Bolton, 2019), giving them more buying power to afford this machinery. Coupling this with other methods, such as micro-finance loans (loans for low-economic individuals or groups that cannot get traditional loans from banks) (WebAdaptive.com, 2024), will allow smallholder farmers the chance to purchase more efficient, time-saving agricultural technologies.</p>

<p><b>Electricity Solution:</b></p>
<p>As discussed above, many smallholder African farmers have minimal access to electricity, making it challenging for machinery such as the electrical sheller to operate at its full potential. A solution to this is to adopt a similar machine in African regions that lack electricity accessibility, such as the petrol powered groundnut sheller; it does the same job as the electrical sheller; however, it solves the electricity issues. Models for purchase can be found on the website “Made-in-China,” with prices as low as $500$-$900 USD (Made-in-China, 2024c).</p>

<p>Box 1 - Calculations: (kW) (Kilowatts) Converted to (MW)</p>
<p>0.75kW= 0.00075 MW</p>
<p>1.5kW= 0.0015 MW</p>
<p>Calculations to get (kW) to (MW) Per Hour</p>
<p>Energy Needed Per Hou r= 0.75 kW/h= 0.75/1000= 0.00075 MW/h</p>
<p>Energy Needed Per Hour = 1.5 kW/h= 1.5/1000= 0.0015 MW/h</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Further Reading </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><i>Detailed YouTube tutorials on how to use electric groundnut shelling machines (Both small-medium scale and large-scale models):</i></p>

<p>● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BhNMHRh6mY (Small-Medium Scale Sheller Vidoe)
<p>● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xr2Nq49hSSs (Large-Scale Sheller Video)
<p>● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDRyQVDmK_8 (Good in-Depth Look at How a Sheller Works)

<p><i>Links to global delivery companies to purchase electric ground nut sellers:</i></p>
<p>● https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/alababa.html
<p>● https://www.made-in-china.com/
<p>● https://www.indiamart.com/

<p><i>Additional readings- SAK Books:</i></p>
<p>● http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.__sak_book_south_asia_jan2017_english_captions_compressed_copy.pdf</p>
<p>● http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.__sakbook_east_asia_jan_2017_english_captions_compressed.pdf</p>
<p>● http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9._sakbook_latin_america_oct2016_english_version.pdf</p>
<p>● http://www.sakbooks.com/north-africa-and-middle-east-english-version.html</p>

Electrical groundnut sheller manuals (Safety and Operational):</i></p>
<p>● https://www.peanutshellingmachine.com/operation-requirements-of-peanut-sheller.html</p>
<p>● http://www.peanut-shellers.org/pdf/Industry-Handbook_Safe-Shelling_Peanuts.pdf</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. APSA Committee on Regulatory Compliance (2020) Industry Handbook for the Safe Shelling of Peanuts http://www.peanut-shellers.org/pdf/Industry-Handbook_Safe-Shelling_Peanuts.pdf</p>

<p>2. Bolton, L. (2019). Economic impact of farming cooperatives in East Africa Question What is the evidence on the economic impact of cooperatives on farmers in East Africa? UK Department for International Development. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5c6bdcf2e5274a72b9333113/Farming.pdf</p>

<p>3. Due, J. M., & Gladwin, C. H. (1991). Impacts of Structural Adjustment Programs on African Women Farmers and Female‐Headed Households. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 73(5), 1431–1439. https://doi.org/10.2307/1242398</p>

<p>4. Frimpong, K., Van Etten E J, E., Oosthuzien, J., & Fannam Nunfam, V. (2016). Heat exposure on farmers in northeast Ghana. International Journal of Biometeorology, 61(3), 397–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-016-1219-7</p>

<p>5. Iqbal, Z., G Jowowasito, Darmanto, Lutfi, M., Wardani, F. I., Lubis, R. A., Siahaan, L. B., & I Hidayah. (2019). Designing small-medium scale groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) shelling machine for local merchant in Tuban, East Java. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 230, 012013–012013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/230/1/012013</p>

<p>6. KMEC. (2021). How to use the peanut shelling machine? - Peanut Machine. https://www.chinapeanutmachinery.com/news/how-to-use-the-peanut-shelling-machine-2.html</p>

<p>7. Machines (2018, October 24). Peanut Shell Machine, Good Peanut Shelling Equipment for Investment. Reliable Food Processing Machine Supplier. https://www.tondefoodmachine.com/nut-processing-machine/peanut-sheller-machine.html</p>

<p>8. Made-in-China, 2024a. [Hot Item] Automatic separating teaseeds groundnut sheller nut huller peanut shelling machine. (n.d.). Made-In-China.com. Retrieved March 10, 2024, from https://vicmachinery.en.made-in-china.com/product/QXjmzfavshRl/China-Automatic-separating-teaseeds-groundnut-sheller-nut-huller-peanut-shelling-machine.html</p>

<p>9. Made-in-China, 2024b. [Hot Item] Mini family use peanut shell removing huller groundnut peeling machine. (n.d.). Made-In-China.com. Retrieved March 10, 2024, from https://vicmachinery.en.made-in-china.com/product/sKZxhEVJatrI/China-Mini-family-use-peanut-shell-removing-huller-groundnut-peeling-machine.html</p>

<p>10. Made-in-China, 2024c. [Hot Item] Peanut Thresher Groundnuts Sheller Machine Peanut Sheller. (n.d.). Made-In-China.com. Retrieved March 16, 2024, from https://china-shuliymachine.en.made-in-china.com/product/sOUtmnxHvakX/China-Peanut-Thresher-Groundnuts-Sheller-Machine-Peanut-Sheller.html</p>

<p>11. Made-in-China.com (n.d.). - Manufacturers, Suppliers & Products in China. Www.made-In-China.com. Retrieved March 13, 2024, from https://www.made-in-china.com/?acc=2332877264-lxy&cpn=15407637972-&tgt=&net=x&dev=c-&gid=EAIaIQobChMI4vuy8bDyhAMVlFRHAR3mww_QEAAYASAAEgL35vD_BwE&kwd=&mtp=&loc=9001010-&gad_source=5&gclid=EAIaIQobChMI4vuy8bDyhAMVlFRHAR3mww_QEAAYASAAEgL35vD_BwE</p>

<p>12. Naidoo, S., Kromhout, H., London, L., Naidoo, R. N., & Burdorf, A. (2009). Musculoskeletal pain in women working in small-scale agriculture in South Africa. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 52(3), 202–209. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20662</p>

<p>13. Ndossi, J., Mwalongo, S., Akpo, E., Alex, G., Nzunda, J., Okori, P., & Ojiewo, C. (2022, December 6). Farmer perceptions on labor-saving technologies in groundnut production systems in Tanzania. ICRISAT. https://oar.icrisat.org/12025/</p>

<p>14. Ogega, K. (2023). How to grow and earn cash from groundnuts. The Saturday Standard, Kenya. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/health/crop/article/2001454435/how-to-grow-and-earn-cash-from-groundnuts</p>

<p>15. Otieno, P. M. (2009). Optimizing the performance of a manually operated groundnut (arachis hypogaea) decorticator. Erepository.uonbi.ac.ke. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/5260</p>

<p>16. Raghtate, A., Handa, C., Student Professor, P., & Head, amp; (2014). Design and Fabrication of Groundnut Sheller Machine. IJIRST -International Journal for Innovative Research in Science & Technology|, 1(7), 008. https://www.ijirst.org/articles/IJIRSTV1I7020.pdf</p>

<p>17. Rapsomanikis, G. (2015). The economic lives of smallholder farmers: An analysis based on household data from nine countries. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/i5251e/i5251e.pdf</p>

<p>18. Shukla, J. P. (2014). Technologies for Sustainable Rural Development: Having Potential of Socio-Economic Upliftment (TSRD–2014). Allied Publishers. https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pZayCQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA13&dq=drudgery+of+groundnut+shelling&ots=A4Nuk_UL8L&sig=_VE1aEINFd8eRSPf-pY05NXHFNA#v=onepage&q=drudgery%20of%20groundnut%20shelling&f=false</p>

<p>19. WebAdaptive.com. (2024). Microfinance. FINCA Canada. https://finca.org/en-ca/our-work/microfinance</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Electric-groundnut-Peanut-shellers-for-small-scale-farmers

2026-04-15T14:45:21Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.59-Electric Groundnut (Peanut) Shellers for Small Scale Farmers</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Finn Grace , University of Guelph, Canada </h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:User 4.webp|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p> Grace,G. (2022) Electric Groundnut (Peanut) Shellers for Small Scale Farmers, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">How Does it Help Smallholder Farmers </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>Prior to consumption, the hard shell around groundnuts (peanuts) must be removed, but this is a burden for small scale farmers. Manual groundnut shelling is a “high kernel breakage” and “low shelling efficiency” process (Otieno, 2009). This causes smallholder farmers to lose significant profits due to the low income associated with broken groundnut kernels. Not only does manual shelling affect the yield of intact kernels, resulting in a loss of profit, but it is also a time-consuming, labor-intensive process (Otieno, 2009). Manual shelling significantly impacts the physical health of smallholder farmers, particularly African women, who comprise around 46% of the agricultural labor force across different African nations (Due & Gladwin, 1991). These farmers suffer from extreme heat (Frimpong et al., 2016), pain in muscles and bones, and other chronic musculoskeletal pain (Naidoo et al., 2009). The electrical groundnut sheller is designed to make the time-consuming process of groundnut shelling more efficient and less laborious (Shukla, 2014). This is achieved by an electrically based machine with various parts working together to achieve the goal of adequately shelled groundnuts (Iqbal et al., 2019); different models of this machine are displayed in Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4. </p>
<p><b>Step-by-step instructions on how to operate an electrical groundnut sheller </b></p>
<p>Step 1. Preparation: Ensure the shelling machine is clean and working (KMEC, 2021).</p>
<p>Step 2. Loading Groundnuts: Add groundnuts to the hopper (see Figure 1 for a description of a hopper) and distribute them evenly into the machine.</p>
<p>Step 3. Start Machine: Locate the power switch and start up the machine.</p>
<p>Step 4. Shelling Process and Monitoring: The machine will shell the groundnuts, separating the shell from the kernels. The unwanted shells will be blown from the machine, and the kernels will be left in a separate container.</p>
<p>Step 5. Collecting: Collect shelled groundnuts from the container and dispose of groundnut shells (KMEC, 2021).</p>
<p>[[File:User 3.webp]]</p>
<p>Figure 1 . Components of a small-medium-sized electrical groundnut sheller (Source: Iqbal et al., 2019)..</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Different Models and Costs of Electrical Groundnut Shellers and Where to Get Them </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Groundnut shellers come in many different sizes and models; small-medium scale models are similar to those in Figure 2, and large-scale models like the sheller in Figure 3. The global Chinese supplier “Made-in-China” sells shelling models of different sizes and power, and ships them globally (Made-in-China, 2024). Made-in-China sells a “Mini family use peanut shell removing huller groundnut peeling machine” (See Figure 2) for between $900-$2000 USD (Made-in-China, 2024-A). This shelling machine has a shelling capacity of 200 kg/hour and a threshing rate (rate machine can separate groundnuts from their shell) of 98%. The website also sells larger-scale shelling machines, such as the “Automatic separating teaseeds groundnut sheller nut huller peanut shelling machine” (See Fgure 3) for $4800-5500 USD. This sheller has a 200-300 kg/hour capacity and a threshing rate above 98% (Made-in-China, 2024-B).</p>
<p>[[File:User 4.webp]]</p>
<p>Figure 2. Electrical groundnut sheller (small-medium scale), sold by “Made-in-China” (Source: Made-in-China, 2024b). Visit the Made-in-China website to see in-depth breaks of prices, data, advantages, safety and operational manuals, etc.</p>
<p>[[File:User 5.png]]</p>
<p>Figure 3. Electrical groundnut sheller (large-scale), sold by “Made-in-China” (Source: Made-in-China, 2024a). Visit the Made-in-China website to see in-depth breaks of prices, data, advantages, safety and operational manuals, etc. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">The Positive Impacts of Electrical Groundnut Shellers on Small Holder Farmers </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Electrical groundnut shellers are believed to be a better option for farmers than manual machines (Raghtate et al., 2014) and compared to manual hand-shelling, which has “low shelling efficiencies” (Otieno, 2009). In Tanzania, groundnuts are a valuable oil, food, and income source for many African farmers (Ndossi et al., 2022). However, the crop is labor-intensive. A study found that introducing LST (labor-saving technologies) had an immediate positive impact on farmers' groundnut production, with farmers having 45.2% of time saved using shelling machines, 35.7% less labor cost, and 11.9% found work was made easier (Ndossi et al., 2022). </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Electric sheller compared to manual shelling: Productivity/yield results and physical labor impacts </h3>
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<p>The article “Design and Fabrication of Groundnut Sheller Machine” concluded that the electrical sheller is the best option for farmers compared to manual shelling techniques of groundnuts (Raghtate et al., 2014). The study first had workers try different manual shelling methods; this included hand shelling and using a rolling pin to crush shells in a cloth bag. These processes, especially hand shelling, were classified as “low-output, time-consuming processes” that had the workers in uncomfortable positions, hindering their physical well-being. Multiple tests of a newly fabricated shelling machine (see Figure 4) were done to analyze and assess the machine's efficiency and productivity (Raghtate et al., 2014). The final results of the tests conducted using the machine in Figure 4 showed that the shelling device demonstrated 81.2% shelling efficiency and 79.93% material efficiency compared to the other methods tested in this report, e.g., manual methods like hand shelling (Raghtate et al., 2014).</p>
<p>[[File:User 7.webp]]</p>
<p>Figure 5. African small-holder farmer posture when shelling groundnuts (Source: Ogega, 2023).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Cost-Benefit Analysis of Electrical Groundnut Sheller </h3>
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<p>Electrical groundnut shellers have significant potential to increase usable yields (Raghtate et al., 2014), reduce labor time (Ndossi et al., 2022), and assist in preserving smallholder farmers' physical health (Shukla, 2014), especially the health of African women, who make up a substantial portion of the agriculture workforce across the continent (Due & Gladwin, 1991). As discussed above, the electric sheller's ability to increase shelling and material efficiency (Raghtate et al., 2014) and smallholder farmers' income via intact shelled kernels (these intact kernels are in high demand around the world) make it an advantageous LST (Labor Saving Technology) (Ndossi et al., 2022). That said, there are two significant constraints to adopting the electrical groundnut sheller that smallholder farmers need help overcoming. The cost of the electrical groundnut sheller is an obvious hurdle for low-income, low-resource farmers. Even small-medium shellers (see Figure 2) cost anywhere from $900 -$2000 USD, and large shellers cost around $4800-$5500 USD (Made-in-China, 2024a), both these model types being out of budget for many African smallholder farmers (Rapsomanikis, 2015). Another issue with the electrical groundnut sheller is the need for electricity. As of 2011, the electrical generation capacity in Sub-Saharan Africa averaged 37MW (Megawatts)/million people (Livingston et al., 2011). Since a small electrical sheller uses about 0.00075MW-0.0015MW per hour (Made-in-China, 2024a) (see Box 1 for how these numbers were calculated below), these shellers aren’t very sustainable for remote African smallholder farmers to use.</p>

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<h3 class="title-bg">Solutions</h3>
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<p><b>Cost Solution:</b></p>
<p>Using the country of Kenya as an example, the average smallholder family earns around $2527 USD in gross yearly income (Rapsomanikis, 2015). Obviously, with the cost of shellers, even the cheapest models are only affordable for some African farmers. However, there are solutions. By introducing methods such as cost-sharing amongst farmer groups/cooperatives, farmers can pool resources together to strengthen their economic situation (Bolton, 2019), giving them more buying power to afford this machinery. Coupling this with other methods, such as micro-finance loans (loans for low-economic individuals or groups that cannot get traditional loans from banks) (WebAdaptive.com, 2024), will allow smallholder farmers the chance to purchase more efficient, time-saving agricultural technologies.</p>

<p><b>Electricity Solution:</b></p>
<p>As discussed above, many smallholder African farmers have minimal access to electricity, making it challenging for machinery such as the electrical sheller to operate at its full potential. A solution to this is to adopt a similar machine in African regions that lack electricity accessibility, such as the petrol powered groundnut sheller; it does the same job as the electrical sheller; however, it solves the electricity issues. Models for purchase can be found on the website “Made-in-China,” with prices as low as $500$-$900 USD (Made-in-China, 2024c).</p>

<p>Box 1 - Calculations: (kW) (Kilowatts) Converted to (MW)</p>
<p>0.75kW= 0.00075 MW</p>
<p>1.5kW= 0.0015 MW</p>
<p>Calculations to get (kW) to (MW) Per Hour</p>
<p>Energy Needed Per Hou r= 0.75 kW/h= 0.75/1000= 0.00075 MW/h</p>
<p>Energy Needed Per Hour = 1.5 kW/h= 1.5/1000= 0.0015 MW/h</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Further Reading </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><i>Detailed YouTube tutorials on how to use electric groundnut shelling machines (Both small-medium scale and large-scale models):</i></p>

<p>● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_BhNMHRh6mY (Small-Medium Scale Sheller Vidoe)
<p>● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xr2Nq49hSSs (Large-Scale Sheller Video)
<p>● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rDRyQVDmK_8 (Good in-Depth Look at How a Sheller Works)

<p><i>Links to global delivery companies to purchase electric ground nut sellers:</i></p>
<p>● https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/alababa.html
<p>● https://www.made-in-china.com/
<p>● https://www.indiamart.com/

<p><i>Additional readings- SAK Books:</i></p>
<p>● http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/2.__sak_book_south_asia_jan2017_english_captions_compressed_copy.pdf</p>
<p>● http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/4.__sakbook_east_asia_jan_2017_english_captions_compressed.pdf</p>
<p>● http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9._sakbook_latin_america_oct2016_english_version.pdf</p>
<p>● http://www.sakbooks.com/north-africa-and-middle-east-english-version.html</p>

Electrical groundnut sheller manuals (Safety and Operational):</i></p>
<p>● https://www.peanutshellingmachine.com/operation-requirements-of-peanut-sheller.html</p>
<p>● http://www.peanut-shellers.org/pdf/Industry-Handbook_Safe-Shelling_Peanuts.pdf</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. APSA Committee on Regulatory Compliance (2020) Industry Handbook for the Safe Shelling of Peanuts http://www.peanut-shellers.org/pdf/Industry-Handbook_Safe-Shelling_Peanuts.pdf</p>

<p>2. Bolton, L. (2019). Economic impact of farming cooperatives in East Africa Question What is the evidence on the economic impact of cooperatives on farmers in East Africa? UK Department for International Development. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5c6bdcf2e5274a72b9333113/Farming.pdf</p>

<p>3. Due, J. M., & Gladwin, C. H. (1991). Impacts of Structural Adjustment Programs on African Women Farmers and Female‐Headed Households. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 73(5), 1431–1439. https://doi.org/10.2307/1242398</p>

<p>4. Frimpong, K., Van Etten E J, E., Oosthuzien, J., & Fannam Nunfam, V. (2016). Heat exposure on farmers in northeast Ghana. International Journal of Biometeorology, 61(3), 397–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-016-1219-7</p>

<p>5. Iqbal, Z., G Jowowasito, Darmanto, Lutfi, M., Wardani, F. I., Lubis, R. A., Siahaan, L. B., & I Hidayah. (2019). Designing small-medium scale groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) shelling machine for local merchant in Tuban, East Java. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 230, 012013–012013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/230/1/012013</p>

<p>6. KMEC. (2021). How to use the peanut shelling machine? - Peanut Machine. https://www.chinapeanutmachinery.com/news/how-to-use-the-peanut-shelling-machine-2.html</p>

<p>7. Machines (2018, October 24). Peanut Shell Machine, Good Peanut Shelling Equipment for Investment. Reliable Food Processing Machine Supplier. https://www.tondefoodmachine.com/nut-processing-machine/peanut-sheller-machine.html</p>

<p>8. Made-in-China, 2024a. [Hot Item] Automatic separating teaseeds groundnut sheller nut huller peanut shelling machine. (n.d.). Made-In-China.com. Retrieved March 10, 2024, from https://vicmachinery.en.made-in-china.com/product/QXjmzfavshRl/China-Automatic-separating-teaseeds-groundnut-sheller-nut-huller-peanut-shelling-machine.html</p>

<p>9. Made-in-China, 2024b. [Hot Item] Mini family use peanut shell removing huller groundnut peeling machine. (n.d.). Made-In-China.com. Retrieved March 10, 2024, from https://vicmachinery.en.made-in-china.com/product/sKZxhEVJatrI/China-Mini-family-use-peanut-shell-removing-huller-groundnut-peeling-machine.html</p>

<p>10. Made-in-China, 2024c. [Hot Item] Peanut Thresher Groundnuts Sheller Machine Peanut Sheller. (n.d.). Made-In-China.com. Retrieved March 16, 2024, from https://china-shuliymachine.en.made-in-china.com/product/sOUtmnxHvakX/China-Peanut-Thresher-Groundnuts-Sheller-Machine-Peanut-Sheller.html</p>

<p>11. Made-in-China.com (n.d.). - Manufacturers, Suppliers & Products in China. Www.made-In-China.com. Retrieved March 13, 2024, from https://www.made-in-china.com/?acc=2332877264-lxy&cpn=15407637972-&tgt=&net=x&dev=c-&gid=EAIaIQobChMI4vuy8bDyhAMVlFRHAR3mww_QEAAYASAAEgL35vD_BwE&kwd=&mtp=&loc=9001010-&gad_source=5&gclid=EAIaIQobChMI4vuy8bDyhAMVlFRHAR3mww_QEAAYASAAEgL35vD_BwE</p>

<p>12. Naidoo, S., Kromhout, H., London, L., Naidoo, R. N., & Burdorf, A. (2009). Musculoskeletal pain in women working in small-scale agriculture in South Africa. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 52(3), 202–209. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.20662</p>

<p>13. Ndossi, J., Mwalongo, S., Akpo, E., Alex, G., Nzunda, J., Okori, P., & Ojiewo, C. (2022, December 6). Farmer perceptions on labor-saving technologies in groundnut production systems in Tanzania. ICRISAT. https://oar.icrisat.org/12025/</p>

<p>14. Ogega, K. (2023). How to grow and earn cash from groundnuts. The Saturday Standard, Kenya. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/health/crop/article/2001454435/how-to-grow-and-earn-cash-from-groundnuts</p>

<p>15. Otieno, P. M. (2009). Optimizing the performance of a manually operated groundnut (arachis hypogaea) decorticator. Erepository.uonbi.ac.ke. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/5260</p>

<p>16. Raghtate, A., Handa, C., Student Professor, P., & Head, amp; (2014). Design and Fabrication of Groundnut Sheller Machine. IJIRST -International Journal for Innovative Research in Science & Technology|, 1(7), 008. https://www.ijirst.org/articles/IJIRSTV1I7020.pdf</p>

<p>17. Rapsomanikis, G. (2015). The economic lives of smallholder farmers: An analysis based on household data from nine countries. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/i5251e/i5251e.pdf</p>

<p>18. Shukla, J. P. (2014). Technologies for Sustainable Rural Development: Having Potential of Socio-Economic Upliftment (TSRD–2014). Allied Publishers. https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pZayCQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA13&dq=drudgery+of+groundnut+shelling&ots=A4Nuk_UL8L&sig=_VE1aEINFd8eRSPf-pY05NXHFNA#v=onepage&q=drudgery%20of%20groundnut%20shelling&f=false</p>

<p>19. WebAdaptive.com. (2024). Microfinance. FINCA Canada. https://finca.org/en-ca/our-work/microfinance</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Drying-pumpkin-leaves

2026-04-15T14:44:14Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>8.63 - Drying pumpkin leaves</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Thomas Haugh, University of Guelph,Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:4.webp|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Haugh,T. (2025) Drying pumpkin leaves. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
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<p>Pumpkin leaves, along with being a dietary staple in West Africa, can also be used as an effective tool to combat malnourishment, an issue that plagues the world along with much of the African continent. The reason pumpkin leaves can potentially be a useful crop for smallholder farmers is because they contain essential proteins, oils, vitamins, and minerals, at a reasonably low cost (Raji, 2016). Additionally, pumpkin leaves can be dried for long term preservation and portably stored whilst retaining many of the desirable qualities that make pumpkin leaves a valuable source of nutrition (Raji, 2016). The presence of a constant dried food source can be extremely advantageous during extended dry seasons which is a common cause of micronutrient malnutrition, especially in the Sub-Tropics of Africa and South Asia (McMahon & Gray, 2021; Thiede & Strube, 2020). However, there are a variety of methods in which pumpkin leaves can be dried which vary in effectiveness concerning cost and successful crop yields. This chapter aims to weigh and assess the value of some of these methods in hopes of providing smallholder farmers with a solution to malnutrition that suits their circumstances. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Open sun drying </h1>
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<p>The most cost effective and readily available method for drying pumpkin leaves is open sun drying (Matavel et al., 2022). This method has been traditionally used by farmers in West Africa (Matavel et al., 2022). and does not require any specific equipment or tools outside which one would commonly own. Pumpkin leaves are first harvested and thoroughly washed of any dirt or debris (Matavel et al., 2022). Pumpkin leaves are then blanched by quickly submerging them in boiling water. It should be noted that if cold water is available, submerging the leaves in a tub of cold water may be beneficial in stopping the cooking process and preserving valuable nutrients. Leaves are then laid out in the open sun to dry, ideally on a clean and flat surface. Simple and cost effective as it may be, open sun drying also has some challenges. This method can lead to higher levels of crop losses from inadequate drying, as well as fungal growth and wildlife interference due to open exposure to the elements (Matavel et al., 2022). </p>
<p>[[Image:YTH.webp|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Fluted pumpkin leaves before harvesting |Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Source: From Fluted pumpkin leaves which are widely used in West Africa for cooking, 2021, Shutterstock (https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/fluted-pumpkin-leaves-which-widely-used-1977440408). Copyright 2021 by Shutterstock. Used under license. </p>

<p>[[Image:PUMPKIN LEAVES.webp|thumb|centre|Figure 2. Pumpkin leaves laid out to dry |Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Source: From Drying Green Pumpkin Leaves / Pumpkin Leaves Recipe / Morogo / How to Make Mufushwa / Muboora [Video], by COOKING QUEEN, 2018, YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fXAcb2h_v5w </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Passive solar drying </h1>
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<p>A viable alternative to traditional open sun drying methods is passive solar drying (Koleleni, 2025). A passive solar dryer is fairly economical, consisting of a small structure which uses the natural power of the sun to dry leaves, much like traditional methods (Koleleni, 2025). However, passive solar dryers have the advantage of sheltering leaves from unwanted environmental factors that may disturb the drying process. Passive solar dryers additionally utilize ventilation and heat insulation which allows for leaves to dry faster than traditional methods (Koleleni, 2025). When compared to open sun drying, passive solar dryers produce a higher yield of successfully dried leaves and a higher quality product overall (Koleleni, 2025) . This method of drying may be more complicated than traditional methods, but it is still attainable for smallholder farmers due to its affordability and the fact that it does not require any electricity or fossil fuels to operate, which also makes it an environmentally friendly option (Balasuadhakar et al., 2016). Passive sun dryers are also considered to be a locally available technology, “thus minimizing the intensification of local food production and food imports, which can negatively impact the environment” (Matavel et al., 2022). Theoretically, if passive solar drying technology was constructed and diffused on an industrial scale in African nations, the availability of this technology for smallholder farmers would drastically increase. This would also create jobs and income sources for younger members of rural populations and people without access to farmland. In order for this to take place there would likely need to be some form of funding and support from local or international governments or humanitarian organizations (Matavel et al., 2022). </p>
<P>Passive solar dryers are used similarly to open sun drying methods, in that leaves must be harvested and thoroughly washed. Leaves should then be spread out evenly on drying trays and placed inside the passive solar dryer for 3-5 days. Pumpkin leaves should be monitored daily throughout the drying process for any imperfections (Botzet, 2023). </p>
<p>[[Image:Passivesolar.webp|thumb|centre|Figure 3. Passive solar dryer diagram|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Source: From Direct Solar Dryer, by Wikimedia Commons Contributors, 2020, Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Direct_Solar_dryer.svg. License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.</p>
<p>Once dried, pumpkin leaves can be stored in food grade plastic bags. For improved preservation, a burning candle can be used to create an airtight seal on the plastic bags (FAO, 2011). The bags should then be labeled with an expiry date which would be around 6 months to a year from when they were initially packaged. The bags can then be placed together in a large container to shield them from external damage, with the container then being placed in a cool and dry location indoors. It should be noted that before packaging, leaves should be examined to ensure that they are sufficiently dried. Properly dried leaves should be brittle and crumble easily (FAO, 2011). </p>
<p>[[Image:Fig4dried pumpkin.webp|thumb|centre|Figure 4. Packaging dried pumpkin leaves in sealable bag|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Source: From How to Dry Fluted Pumpkin Leaves | UGU | Okongobong for exportation [Video], by Lamin Akonjom, 2022, YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3xrVpe1Nc4o</p>
<p>[[Image:Storage 45.webp|thumb|centre|Figure 5. Example of storage container in which sealable bags could be kept|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Source: From Plastic Container Storage Box Blue Element, by Shutterstock, 2022, Shutterstock. https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/plastic-container-storage-box-blue-element-2094619852.</p>
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<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Critical Analysis</h1>
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<p>
The drying of pumpkin leaves and the above mentioned methods of open sun drying and passive solar drying are subject to certain variables and factors that can positively or negatively impact their efficiency and value for smallholder farmers. These factors include climate and environment, marketability of products, financial cost, as well as the level of micronutrient preservation throughout the harvest, drying, and storage processes (Nyembe, 2015; Senyolo, 2018; Raji, 2016). For example, traditional open sun drying methods, as well as passive solar drying are highly dependent on weather and climate. This means that the application of these methods in areas of Africa that are more humid and rainy would likely prove to be ineffective due to the risk of fungal growth and overall unsuitable conditions for drying. In turn, these methods are well suited for regions that experience more exposure to sunlight and dryer conditions (Nyembe, 2015). Additionally, the drying of pumpkin leaves as a practice may not be ideal for smallholder African farmers looking to market their products in urban environments. This is suggested by a study (Senyolo, 2018) conducted in South Africa which assessed the value chain for African leafy vegetables, which found that younger generations tend to prefer products that are canned or branded and often view leafy vegetation as lower class food products, with many restaurants and hotels attempting to package dried leaves in ways that are more appealing to urban dwellers and wealthier consumers (Senyolo, 2018). When comparing the nutritional content of fresh pumpkin leaves versus pumpkin leaves that were dried by open sun and solar methods, there are significant differences. A study which examined the composition of fluted pumpkin leaves after drying found that sun and solar drying methods resulted in a loss of nutritional contents by 30% in crude protein, 20% in crude fibre, and 40% in carbohydrates, with nutrient levels steadily decreasing as time progressed during storage (Raji, 2016). Open sun drying methods are extremely cost effective as the only items required are a tub for blanching leaves and a clean area in which leaves can be dried. If one does not possess either of these items, they can be purchased online at a minimal expense. Small tubs, as well as tarpauline, which could be used as a clean place to dry leaves, can be found on Alibaba.com for less than 5 US dollars (see Helpful Resources section for specific listings). Passive solar dryers are available for purchase online, however they are considerably more expensive than open sun drying. A solution to this would be constructing a homemade passive solar dryer with locally available materials (see Helpful Resources section for a tutorial). As for the cost of storing dried pumpkin leaves, Alibaba.com offers sealable food grade bags for less than 1 US dollar per bag, as well as containers which can be used to store packages of dried leaves for less than 5 US dollars. Theoretically, the formation of women’s farming cooperatives could increase the availability of products required to harvest and dry pumpkin leaves, lowering expenses for smallholder farmers. Research conducted regarding a female led agricultural cooperative in Ethiopia (Gebremichael, 2014). showed that by sharing information, pooling resources for loans and grants from humanitarian or government organizations, as well as sharecropping, agricultural practices became more accessible and sustainable for smallholder farmers. The formation of women's cooperatives would also benefit rural communities in terms of community development, and empowerment in the form of economic independence for women (Gebremichael, 2014).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Resources to Get Started</h1>
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<p><b>1.Open sun drying:</b></p>
<p>The Herbazest website offers instructions for those looking to preserve pumpkin leaves using traditional African open sun drying techniques: https://www.herbazest.com/herbs/pumpkin/pumpkin-leaves</p>

<p>Low cost tarpauline which could be used for laying out pumpkin leaves for open sun drying on a clean surface:
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Heavy-Duty-HDPE-Tarpaulin-Sheet-Tarps_1601166039695.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.53f413a0TsT16x</p>

<p>Low cost tub which could be used for blanching pumpkin leaves:
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Plastic-Moving-Box-Turnover-Crate-Open_1601209670063.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.111e13a00spzGo</p>

<p><b>2. Passive solar drying:</b></p>
<p>Gardening for Australia provides an excellent tutorial on how to construct a passive solar dryer:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z0f0jew8Whw</p>

<p>Dryers for Africa is a company that is based in Africa and makes products primarily for African smallholder farmers, taking quality, price, assembly, and delivery into account: https://www.dryersforafrica.co.za/</p>

<p>Grekkon Limited, like Dryers for Africa, is a company that markets solar dryers to smallholder African farmers:
https://grekkon.co.ke/solar-dryers/</p>

<p><b>Storage:</b></p>

<p>This webpage from the United Nations FAO provides information on the preservation and storage of green leafy vegetables:
https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a759bb6d-091e-4d4a-89c0-a8b5125d4123/content</p>
<p>Low cost food grade sealable plastic bags for storage of dried pumpkin leaves:
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Embossed-Vacuum-Bag-Roll-Sous-Vide_1601245247478.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.45c713a0rv1oNz&selectedCarrierCode=SEMI_MANAGED_ECONOMIC@@ECONOMY</p>

<p>Low cost container which could be used to store sealed bags of dried pumpkin leaves:
https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/Thickened-Transparent-Sealed-Fresh-Keeping-Box_1601063301770.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.26c513a01GGRn9&selectedCarrierCode=SEMI_MANAGED_STANDARD@@STANDARD
</p>

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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Balasuadhakar, A., Fisseha, T., Atenafu, A., & Bino, B. (2016). A review on passive solar dryers for agricultural products. International Journal for Innovative Research in Science & Technology 3, 64-70. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=EsyTRzAAAAAJ&citation_for_view=EsyTRzAAAAAJ:9yKSN-GCB0IC</p>

<p>2. Boztet, C. (2023). Solar Drying Fruits and Vegetables. South Dakota State University Extension. Retrieved from https://extension.sdstate.edu/sites/default/files/2023-06/P-00270.pdf</p>

<p>3. Dryers For Africa. (n.d.). Homepage. Retrieved from https://www.dryersforafrica.co.za/</p>

<p>4. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2011). Preserving green leafy vegetables and fruits. FAO, Rome. Retrieved from https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a759bb6d-091e-4d4a-89c0-a8b5125d4123/content</p>

<p>5. Gebremichael, B. (2014). The role of agricultural cooperatives in Promoting Food Security and Rural Women’s Empowerment in Eastern Tigray Region, Ethiopia. Developing Country Studies 5, 96-110. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234681725.pdf </p>

<p>6. Koleleni, Y. I. (2025). Design, construction, and evaluation of a passive solar dryer for sustainable food preservation. Asian Journal of Research and Reviews in Physics 9, 40-56. https://journalajr2p.com/index.php/AJR2P/article/view/181</p>

<p>7. Matavel, C., Kächele, H., Steinke, J., Rybak, C., Hoffmann, H., Salavessa, J., Sieber, S., & Müller, K. (2022). Effect of passive solar drying on food security in rural Mozambique. Scientific Reports 12, 17154. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-22129-9</p>

<p>8. McMahon, K., & Gray, C. (2021). Climate change, social vulnerability and child nutrition in South Asia. Global Environmental Change 71, 1-2414, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34898861/</p>

<p>9. Nyembe, S. (2015). Preserving traditional leafy vegetables using indigenous knowledge-based drying technologies to improve household food security in Limpopo Province, South Africa. University of Kwazulu-Natal. Retrieved from https://researchspace.ukzn.ac.za/server/api/core/bitstreams/10915773-2251-4ae8-b8b3-fff91f31c8b5/content</p>

<p>10. Pumpkin leaves. (2020). HerbaZest. Retrieved from https://www.herbazest.com/herbs/pumpkin/pumpkin-leaves</p>

<p>11. Raji, R. A. (2016). Effects of drying methods and storage duration on proximate composition of fluted pumpkin leaves. Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State,
a. Nigeria. 37TH ANNUAL CONFERENCE AND ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING–“MINNA 2016”, Minna, Nigeria. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334812390_EFFECTS_OF_DRYING_METHODS_AND_STORAGE_DURATION_ON_PROXIMATE_COMPOSITION_OF_FLUTED_PUMPKIN_LEAVES </p>

<p>12. Senyolo, G. M., Wale, E. and Ortmann, G.F. (2018). Analysing the value chain for African leafy vegetables in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Cogent Social Sciences 4, 1509417. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311886.2018.1509417</p>

<p>13. Solar dryers. (2021). Grekkon Limited. Retrieved from https://grekkon.co.ke/solar-dryers/</p>

<p>14. Thiede, B. C., & Strube, J. (2020). Climate variability and child nutrition: Findings from Sub-Saharan Africa. Global Environmental Change 65, 102192. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34789965/</p>
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High-efficiency-cook-stoves-and-pot-skirts

2026-04-15T14:43:23Z

Mamta:

<div class="title"><h3>8.15 - High efficiency cook stoves and pot skirts</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Gryphon Theriault-Loubier, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Theriault-Loubier,G (2022) High efficiency cook stoves and pot skirts. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Humans have been cooking food for at least 250,000 years, with some anthropological evidence dating the use of fire in cooking to 1.2 million years ago (Wrangham, 2003). Historically, cooking food has been a laborious endeavor, requiring the gathering of fuel in the form of wood and maintenance of equipment (Wrangham, 2003). Globally, a continued reliance on fuel woods is thought to be associated with deforestation, or at least forest degradation (Adeoye, 2011; Htun, 2013). As fuel wood becomes unavailable, some common substitutions for cooking fuel are crop residues and animal dung, which are crucial agricultural inputs for a subsistence farmer.</p>
<p>Most often, wood gathering has been relegated to children and women in particular, taking up a large proportion of their time (FAO, n.d.). Sexual assault often occurs as females collect fuelwood so minimizing the number of trips improves security (FAO, n.d.)</p>
<p>In many cultures, cooking indoors is a matter of practicality due to weather. Indoor cooking results in measurable impacts on the short term and long term health of women caused by the normal products of combustion including particulate matter (smoke) and noxious by-products such as benzene (C6H6) and carbon monoxide (CO). Naehler (2007) found that smoke from burnt wood suppresses the immune system. Some of the most commonly implicated illnesses are eye and lung irritations and associated pneumonias (Ochieng, 2013). Person (2012) estimates that globally, women and children are exposed to an average daily median of five hours of indoor air pollution where indoor cooking fires are commonplace. This exposure has been associated with approximately 1.5 million deaths in children <5 years of age, caused by acute respiratory infections related to indoor smoke, ostensibly from “inefficient” cooking stoves (Person 2012). This does not take into qualitative discomfort of coughing or runny nose or associated exposure to heightened room temperatures (Person, 2012).</p>
<p>Increasing the efficiency of cooking - thereby reducing pollution, fuel use, and time spent cooking is critical to improving social and economic outcomes. Recognizing this, many small-scale projects have emerged in various countries with products to meet this challenge. There are important misconceptions, however, about which cooking stove models improve either fuel efficiency or negative health effects (see below). Table 1 below evaluates a few promising cook stoves. One widely used stove is the ‘upesi jiko’ (Swahili for “quick stove”), which has been described by the United Nations as a “local solution to a global problem” (UNEP, n.d.) The distribution of this stove had a measurable effect in reducing fuel use and cook time, as well as visible smoke in the homes and associated eye irritation (Foote, 2013). The cost is approximately $2 USD for a single unit stove, and an additional $3 USD for a more permanent installation (Foote, 2013), though it should be noted that research indicated a high variability in stove design, price, efficiency, and health effects.</p>
<p><b>Table 1. Summary of selected improved cook stoves.</b></p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Understanding Engineering Principles of Healthy, High-Efficiency Stoves <i>(Adapted from Aprovecho Technical Manual)</i></h3>
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<p>Though there is a wide variance in available products, many of the general engineering principles are similar. The information provided below is intended to inform the reader of the characteristics and misconceptions of what defines a high-quality stove, which need not be expensive.</p>

<p><b>Efficiency</b></p>
<p>There is an apparent misconception about what makes a cook stove efficient: cook stove efficiency is not only about converting fuel into heat but also about transferring the heat to the pot. For example, a three-stone fire is considered quite effective at turning wood into heat, known as combustion (70-90% efficient), but its inefficiency comes from only 10-40% of the released heat reaching the pot. Improving the efficiency of heat transfer is now thought to be more critical for human health by reducing emissions.</p>

<p><i>Insulation</i></p> around the fire itself should ideally be made of lightweight, semi-porous, heat resistant materials. Insulation with a porous material helps to maintain airflow and temperature, encouraging a more complete combustion that reduces smoke and other toxic byproducts. Many commercial Jiko stoves use a ceramic liner for this purpose – some models have an insulative brick chimney.</p>

<p><i>Airflow</i></p> is critically important to ensure efficient combustion. For this reason, a grate is often used under the space where combustion (fire) occurs to allow airflow to the fuel from all sides. A draft is important as well; closed box type stoves should have an access door and chimney that are roughly the same size to help maintain a steady draft. Insufficient airflow will result in more smoke and charcoal, but an excess of air will keep fire temperature low. A method of controlling airflow would be helpful, to adjust as necessary according to task.</p>

<p><i>Venting</i></p> is the use of a chimney to evacuate smoke to the outdoors. Venting has been shown to have superior health benefits, but is usually costly than a simple intervention as it requires installation.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
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<p><i>Wood reduction:</i></p> Barnes (1993) estimated that approximately 300-600 kg of wood per family per year was saved, at a value of $15-84 (1993 USD) with the use of more efficient cook stoves, depending on location and materials used. For families that survive on $1-2 per day, these savings are substantial.</p>

<p><i>Human health:</i></p> Research is ongoing to determine the health effects of using an improved cook stove. The issue is complex, not least because so many different models exist. Generally, it seems logical that most stoves, when used properly and maintained, will emit less carbon monoxide and other toxic gases. However, in 2010, the University of California-Berkeley evaluated 50 different models of improved cooking stoves in laboratory tests. The Berkeley study found that even poorly designed stoves can reduce fuel use compared to a three-stone fire, but may increase emissions of carbon monoxide perhaps because the improved stoves use charcoal (MacCarty, 2010). Ochieng (2013) found that a homemade rocket mud stove does produce less carbon monoxide than a three-stone fire, but still emits above World Health Organization guidelines, which is “unlikely to lead to appreciable health benefits.”
While Harris (2011) found a 26% decrease in reported lower respiratory tract clinic visits in Santa Avelina, Guatemala, after the implementation of ONIL brand efficient stoves in 90% of households, Foote (2013) found that Jiko stoves are not effective in preventing respiratory diseases in children. Foote cited one of the main reasons for this observation was that combined use of Jiko with more traditional methods continues to prevail in households. The reasons for this are not explicitly stated, however Barnes (1993) attributes the prevailing use of traditional stoves over efficient stoves to a number of reasons, including perceived protection from insects provided by smoke, better and more efficient accommodation of pan sizes, waste heat as heating the home, and in some cases the wider variance of acceptable fuels in traditional stoves. Barnes also notes that cash expenditures are often non-existent in construction of traditional stoves, As a result, it is suggested that deployment of this technology would need to be highly region specific, taking into account the reasons traditional stoves are used. Interestingly, Barnes (1993) believes that the best market for new stove technology deployment will be urban and peri-urban, where fuel woods are already scarce and people already</p>
<p>purchase both fuel and stoves.</p>

<p><i>Improved stoves for profit and jobs:</i></p> More cost-effective cook stoves can enable post harvest processing and value addition of goods such as converting grains into flat bread or dry, roasted snacks. Stove building can also create a source of local employment (Ingwe, 2008). However, Wawire (2010) noted mixed results in Jiko stove making as an enterprise. While economically successful and sustainable, individuals cited relatively heavy time commitments needed to make the stoves and the tedious nature of the work as being among the factors influencing negative perception of the industry.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Constraints to adoption</h3>
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<p>In addition to the above discussion, there are several constraints to adoption of improved cook stoves. For example, Foote (2013) found that despite market subsidization and market promotion in the region studied, less than 20% of households owned a stove. Some high-efficiency stoves, such as the ONIL brand, are in the price range of $150 each and are therefore most likely out of reach for many families (http://www.helpsintl.org/programs/stove.php). Of interest is the effect of the local perception of fuel shortages as compared to scientifically predicted shortages. For example, if a local population does not perceive an imminent wood shortage, Barnes (1993) showed it might not adopt jiko stoves as easily. The reader is encouraged to read a more recent article which has integrated potential constraints to adoption of improved cook stoves into a cost-benefit analysis for different stove types, including capital costs, costs of <p>repair and fuel, time savings, health and environmental benefits (Jeuland and Pattanayak, 2012).</p>
One critical issue is that improved stoves typically only accommodate one pot, whereas a three-stone fire can accommodate several pans at once while also keeping other food warm through proximity.</p>
<p>There are cultural reasons why an improved cooking stove may not be adopted. For example, a traditional Punjab dish in India is Kadhi, which uses chickpea flour and buttermilk or yoghurt to produce a creamy dish eaten with pakoras, roti or boiled rice. Rocket stoves are most often designed with the fastest water boiling time as benchmark. Yet in this instance, the boiling of a liquid is not desired because the milky stew would scald (Barnes, 1993) -- few stoves have an option to “turn down the heat” once the fuel has been inserted aside from removing some of the fuel. Other cuisines seek to ‘slow cook’ food to increase flavor. In addition, some cultures use clay pots with rounded bottoms to cook food – a stove with a flat heating surface would be inefficient and possibly unsafe for heating this kind of pot. Many stove models can be adjusted to have ‘open’ access points that allow a rounded pot to sit comfortably – a skirt around the pot or a chimney would be necessary to ensure adequate airflow.</p>
<p>Therefore, adjustments to an introduced stove, or additional technology may be needed according to cooking preferences. Ultimately, field-testing the stoves in situ will be of critical importance in determining efficacy prior to large-scale projects.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Pot Skirts </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>An appropriate technology would in this case be one that is adaptable and expandable to a given situation. To this end, one of the most inexpensive and simple interventions in cooking in the developing world may be the pot skirt. A pot skirt wraps around a pot to seal any gaps around the pot relative to the fuel source below, thus improving heat transfer. In fact, pot skirts have been found to increase fuel efficiency of rocket stoves by 20% (MacCarty, 2010). A pot skirt can also be used in conjunction with a jiko stove or traditional three-stone fire. An advantage of an effective pot skirt is that it can be adapted to a variety of sizes of pan or pot.</p>
<p>Currently, affordable pot skirts are not for sale, however the Haiti rocket stove project has full instructions on how to construct a relatively efficient stove and accompanying pot skirt.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.15.webp|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Further Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The Gaia Movement has insturctions on How to Build a Jiko Stove. Also see How to build a rocket stove .
Aprovecho, an NGO based out of Oregon, has high quality, open access information on the design and improvement of cook stoves, with information in Spanish and Italian in addition to English. Visit the website or <b>contact</b> info@aprovecho.org 541-767-0287</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Purchasing information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>In Kenya, through mPesa, which delivers to 20+ locations around East Africa http://kenyacharcoal.blogspot.ca/2009/12/buy-energy-saving-jiko-and-plant-52.html) Contact Teddy via email at teddykinyanjui@hotmail.com</p>
<p>A highly polished line of advanced products is available through Colorado State university (http://www.envirofit.org/products/?pid=4)
For ONIL stoves http://www.helpsintl.org/programs/stove.php
<p><b>Further Sites of Interest:</b></p>
<p>http://www.cleancookstoves.org/</p>
<p>http://www.povertyactionlab.org/ </p>
<p>(http://www.solutions-site.org/kids/stories/KScat2_sol60.htm)</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Adeoye, N. O., & Ayeni, B. (2011). Assessment of deforestation, biodiversity loss and the associated factors: Case study of ijesa-ekiti region of southwestern Nigeria. GeoJournal, 76(3), 229-243</p>
<p>2. Barnes, D. F., Openshaw, K., Smith, K. R., & van, d. P. (1993). The design and diffusion of improved cooking stoves. The World Bank Research Observer, 8(2), 119-119.</p>
<p>3. CAMPBELL, J. (1994). Constraints on sustainable development in Ethiopia: Is there a future for improved wood-stoves? Public Administration & Development (1986-1998), 14(1), 19.</p>
<p>4. FAO (n.d.) Gender-Based Violence and Livelihood Interventions: Focus on Populations of humanitarian concern in the context of HIV. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. Available online at < http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/dimitra/pdf/guidance_note_gbv_livelihoods.pdf></p>
<p>5. Foote, E. M., Gieraltowski, L., Ayers, T., Sadumah, I., Faith, S. H., Silk, B. J., . . . Quick, R. E. (2013). Impact of locally produced, ceramic cook stoves on respiratory disease in children in rural western Kenya. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 88(1), 132-137.</p>
<p>6. Harris, S. A., Weeks, J. B., Chen, J. P., & Layde, P. (2011). Health effects of an efficient vented stove in the highlands of guatemala. Global Public Health, 6(4), 421-432.</p>
<p>7. Htun, N. Z., Mizoue, N., & Yoshida, S. (2013). Changes in determinants of deforestation and forest degradation in popa mountain park, central myanmar. Environmental Management, 51(2), 423-34.</p>
<p>8. Hyman, E. L. (1987). The strategy of production and distribution of improved charcoal stoves in kenya. World Development,15(3), 375-386.</p>
<p>9. Ingwe, A. (2008). Improved cooking stoves and baking ovens. Appropriate Technology, 35(2), 44-45.</p>
<p>10. Daniel, M. K. (1999). Bringing power to the people. Environment, 41(5), 10-15+.</p>
<p>11. Livernash, R. (1992). The growing influence of NGOs in the developing world. Environment, 34(5), 12-12.</p>
<p>12. MacCarty, N. Fuel use and emissions performance of fifty cooking stoves in the laboratory and related benchmarks of performance. (2010). Energy for Sustainable Development, 14(3), 161-171.</p>
<p>13. Mintz, S. W., & Du Bois, C.,M. (2002). The anthropology of food and eating. Annual Review of Anthropology, 31, 99-119.</p>
<p>14. Naeher LP, Brauer M, Lipsett M, Zelikoff JT, Simpson CD, Koenig JQ, Smith</p>
<p>15. KR, 2007. Wood smoke health effects: a review. Inhal Toxicol 19: 67–106.</p>
<p>16. Ochieng, C. A., Vardoulakis, S., & Tonne, C. (2013). Are rocket mud stoves associated with lower indoor carbon monoxide and personal exposure in rural kenya? Indoor Air, 23(1), 14-24.</p>
<p>17. Wawire, N. & Nafukho, F. M. (2010). Factors affecting the management of women groups' micro and small enterprises in kakamega district, kenya. Journal of European Industrial Training, 34(2), 128-152.</p>
<p>18. Wrangham, R., & Conklin-Brittain, N. (2003). 'Cooking as a biological trait'. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology.Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 136(1), 35-46.</p>
<p>19. Person, B., Loo, J. D., Owuor, M., Ogange, L., Jefferds, M. E. D., & Cohen, A. L. (2012). "It is good for my family's health and cooks food in a way that my heart loves": Qualitative findings and implications for scaling up an improved cook stove project in rural kenya. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9(5), 1566-1566.</p>
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Low-cost-machines-to-extract-cooking-oil-from-seeds

2026-04-15T14:42:28Z

Mamta:

<div class="title"><h3>8.14 - Low cost machines to extract cooking oil from seeds</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Navjot Singh, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Singh,N (2022) Low cost machines to extract cooking oil from seeds. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Cooking oil is an important food ingredient as it reduces the time required to cook, because of its high heat capacity. Women and girls have to walk long distances to collect firewood, so many traditional foods rely on frying which makes cooking much faster and hence uses less fuelwood. It also reduces the time required by women to spend in front of the cooking fire, breathing in dangerous smoke. Moreover, cooking oil adds flavor, texture and nutrition to food. It is also a valuable source of energy and essential fatty acids. Smallholder farmers can use cooking oil to improve the quality of their products and to make them more nutritious; not only does it add flavor to food, but it also helps to preserve it. Farmers can also sell cooking oil to local markets. Smallholder farmers can also use it to produce biodiesel, which can be used to power vehicles and machinery. It can be used for cooking, lighting, and powering farm equipment. It is also used in the production of soap, detergent, and other products. Overall, cooking oil is an important product for smallholder farmers because it is a source of income and helps to improve the quality of life (Fold, 1999).</p>
<p>However, cooking oil extraction is laborious for most small scale farmers (Poku, 2002; Fold, 1999). As a result, farmers typically sell raw oilseeds and do not capture the value from a final oil product. Instead, farmers are forced to buy cooking oil which is expensive.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Different Methods Of Oil Extraction </i></h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>•Mechanical extraction is the most traditional method of oil extraction used by smallholders; it involves pounding oilseeds with a mortar and pestle (Poku, 2002).</p>
<p>•Oilseed pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses a screw to compress and extract oil from seeds and nuts. The material to be pressed is fed into the press, where it is crushed and compressed. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. This type of extraction is popular among small scale farmers because the presses which use this method are generally inexpensive, as they require a low number of parts. Furthermore, it is simple and requires only one person to operate it by rotating on the handle of the screw mechanism.</p>
<p>•Expeller pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses two heavy plates to compress and extract oil from seeds and nuts. The seed is placed between two heavy metal plates in a machine. When the machine is switched on, the plates normally revolve, pushing the seed harder and harder to extract oil from it. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. The machinery required is inexpensive and does not require any chemicals to operate it (De Alzaa et al., 2020).</p>
<p>•Cold pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses a cold press to extract oil from seeds and nuts. The material to be pressed is fed into the press, where it is crushed and compressed. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. This method is the same as expeller pressing but the temperature must be 40˚C or lower for the oil to be considered cold pressed. Cold pressed oil is regarded as offering more nutritional and health advantages. These oils are often high in vitamin E and monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (De Alzaa et al., 2020).</p>
<p>•Hot pressing is a method of oil pressing that uses a hot press to extract oil from seeds and nuts. The material to be pressed is fed into the press, where it is heated and crushed. The oil is then extracted from the crushed material. </p>
<p>Given the current challenges faced by small scale farmers to extract cooking oil, low cost and low labor alternative technologies are needed. This chapter will focus on hot/cold presses because they are easy to operate, are very portable and cost efficient.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Manual Stainless Steel Oil Pressing Machine </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:Manual machine 1.webp|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Example of a low cost, manual stainless steel oil pressing machine (https://www.aliexpress.com/item/1005004299149040.html).]]</p>
<p>This machine is attached to a table, and one person is required to operate it by turning the crank while feeding the seeds from the top.
This machine only weighs 3 kg and is 39 x 9 x30 cm in size (Figure 1). The light weight and small size of this machine makes it very easy to transport on a motorbike or a bicycle.</p>
<p>This hot/cold press runs mechanically and requires physical labor; the mechanical nature means that it has a very low environmental impact but is very labor intensive. It does require only one person to operate it, allowing individual households to be self-sufficient. In very low-income regions, local entrepreneurs could start a fee-for-service business, to rent the machine to farmers for a period of time so they can extract oil themselves. An advantage of this approach is that the entrepreneur is then responsible for any repairs.</p>
<p>The physical operation of the press allows it to be very viable in regions with scarce or no electricity or other energy sources such as petrol.
<p><i><b>Raw Material:</i></b></p> This device is suitable for more than 25 percent of oil crops such as flax seed, coconut, walnut, sesame seed, sunflower, peanut/groundnut, pecan nut, mustard/canola/rapeseed and palm seeds. </p>
<p><i><b>Method of operation:</i></b></p> https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=gQa5ml_6iiQ (Fyre 2020)</p>
<p><i><b>Average cost:</i></b></p> As of 2022, this machine costs on average US $125 (shorturl.at/dSW17) including worldwide shipping. An alternative machine costs US $72 (shorturl.at/cdglT), plus shipping costs.</p>
<p><i><b>Production:</i></b></p> This machine has a dry cake residual oil rate of around 20% because it is hand operated. The dry residual cake is the oil that remains in the cake, so the lower the residual oil rate, the better the machine's performance. Some more oil can be extracted by grinding the residue again in order to increase the seed/oil ratio (Ali Express 2022).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Automatic Cold Press Machine</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:Automatic machine.webp|thumb|centre|Figure 2. Example of a low cost cold-press machine machine (Source: Savaliya Industries, 2022).]]</p>
<p>This machine needs to be plugged in to a 110 V or 220 V power supply, and one person needs to feed seeds to it from its top and then just wait for the machine to extract the oil.</p>
<p>The machine shown in Figure 2 weighs around 10 kg and is 42x16x30 cm in size. Its size allows it to be easily transported on a motorbike but due to its heavy weight transporting it on a bicycle may be more challenging.</p>
<p>The low price, light weight and high oil production rate of the machine make it suitable for a small farmer cooperative. The smallholder farmers can visit the cooperative in order to get their seeds processed and take oil and dry cake residue home (Jofay 2016). The dry cake can be used as a fertilizer for plants by soaking it in water (Xanh 2013). It can also be used as an animal feed (Poku, 2002).</p>
<p>Since this machine needs electricity in order to operate, it is not suitable for regions with scarce electricity. Petrol-based generators can be used in those regions if readily available.</p>
<p><i><b>Raw Material:</i></b></p> This press works with all the seeds that can be cold pressed such as tung tree seeds, peanuts (groundnuts), sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, tea seeds, rapeseed/mustard, flax seeds, etc. (Savaliya Industries, 2022).</p>
<p><i><b>Method of operation:</i></b></p> https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=FK5GHCpOsGQ (Joyfay 2016) </p>
<p><i><b>Average cost:</i></b></p> The price of this machine ranges from $220 to $280 USD depending on the source, yield and guarantee options.
The oil extractor made by SAVALIYA costs $280 plus shipping as of 2022, and is sold by AliExpress (Savaliya Industries, 2022)
Another press made by MPSVADH electrical life store costs US $220 including shipping costs and is sold by AliExpress (shorturl.at/inW02). This is a cheap alternative to the oil extractor made by SAVALIYA with a little extra energy usage required. </p>
<p><i><b>Production:</i></b></p> This machine is very efficient in terms of oil production and has a dry cake residual oil rate of 5%. Around 3-5 kg of seeds are processed every hour. It is recommended to stop the press for about 30 minutes after every 4 hours of continuous use (Savaliya Industries, 2022).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>To conclude, it depends on the farmer regarding how fast they need their seeds processed. An automatic press can process around 5 kg of seeds every hour, which is significantly more than a hand operated press would yield.</p>
<p>Cheap oil extractors are usually manual ones, meaning that they require physical labor to operate. They are also often less energy-efficient than their more expensive counterparts. On the other hand, they tend to be more affordable and easier to maintain.</p>
<p>Expensive oil extractors are usually automated. This means that they require less labor to operate, and are often more energy-efficient. However, they tend to be more expensive to purchase and maintain. Moreover, expensive oil extractors tend to have a lot of parts that increase the risk of failure (Fold, 1999). Some machines come with a limited warranty that cover the first 2-5 years of operation, but after that, the farmer will need to pay for all the repairs which could be expensive (Sims and Kienzle, 2015) and logistically challenging for smallholders (Fold, 1999).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.14 page-0001.webp|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Additional Practical Resources To Get Started</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>BEST Service for Any Problems about Oil Press Machines (bestoilpressmachines.com)</p>
<p>- Small-Scale Oilseed Presses - YouTube</p>
<p>- Automatic Oil Press for Home Use - YouTube</p>
<p>- Hand Operated Oil Press - YouTube</p>
<p>- Pedal powered Piteba Nut and Seed Oil Expeller Oil press - YouTube</p>

<p><b>Picture based training lessons for farmers:</b></p>

<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.14__south_asian_eng.pdf
+ 4 other Ethnic versions available</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Fold, N. (1999) Small-scale processing of cooking oil in rural Zimbabwe and Burkina Faso. Danish Journal of Geography 1, 55-60
http://img.kb.dk/tidsskriftdk/pdf/gto/gto_si01-PDF/gto_si01_72555.pdf</p>

<p>2. Christensen, T. (2022) What is expeller pressed oil. Delighted Cooking website, Accessed Dec 3, 2022.
https://www.delightedcooking.com/what-is-expeller-pressed-oil.htm</p>

<p>3. De Alzaa F, Guillaume C and Ravetti L (2020) Evaluation of Chemical and Physical Changes in Different Commercial Oils During Heating. Acta Scientific Nutritional Health 2.6, 2-11. https://www.actascientific.com/ASNH/pdf/ASNH-02-0083.pdf</p>

<p>4. Sims, B. and Kienzle, J. (2015). Mechanization of Conservation Agriculture for Smallholders: Issues and Options for Sustainable Intensification. Environments, 2 (2) 139-166. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3298/2/2/139</p>

<p>5. Fyre, B. (2020). How to Use Manual Oil Press Machine. YouTube. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=gQa5ml_6iiQ</p>

<p>6. Joyfay International (2016). Automatic Oil Press.YouTube. https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=FK5GHCpOsGQ.</p>
<p>7. Hang Xanh Company Limited (2013) The best way to use kinds of oil cakes as fertilizer http://hxcorp.com.vn/news/778-the-best-way-to-use-kinds-of-oil-cakes-as-fertilizer.html</p>
<p>8. Poku, K. (2002) Small-Scale Palm Oil Processing in Africa, FAO, Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/y4355e/y4355e00.htm#Contents</p>

<p>9. Savaliya Industries (2022) Fully Automatic Cold Press Oil Maker Machine. https://www.si-pl.com/products/si-801-fully-automatic-cold-press-oil-maker-machine?variant=41506628239516.</p>

<p>10. Ali Express (2022) Manual Oil Pressing Machine. https://www.aliexpress.com/item/1005004299149040.html?</p>
</div>
</div>

Millet-grain-thresher

2026-04-15T14:37:39Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.12 - Millet grain thresher</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Zena Samake, University of Guelph, Canada
</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:MILKC.webp|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Community millet thresher (English subtitles)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KScSdE5xnf8</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Samake,Z(2022) Millet grain thresher. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Background</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Millets are small grain cereal crops and include finger millet which is an annual cereal high in calcium, zinc, iron, dietary fibre, phytates and protein. The crop is widely cultivated in Africa and South Asia. Other millets include pearl millet, proso millet, foxtail millet, barnyard millet, kodo millet and little millet (Goron and Raizada, 2015). A millet grain thresher is a machine derived from the original grain thresher created by the Scottish engineer Andrew Meikle in 1786 (Norman, n.d.). This machine’s sole purpose is to ease a woman farmer’s task of threshing millet and does so faster and more reliably than traditional manual methods in Africa and South Asia. The traditional methods are time-consuming, economically inefficient and physically painful as they can cause back pain from repetitive action (Mistra & Satapathy, 2018).</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">What Is The Millet Grain Thresher </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A millet grain thresher is a machine with the sole purpose of separating the grain from their protective coats and is much faster than the traditional method of beating the grains with a flail which is also less reliable (see the video in the Practical Links section1) because of the high rate of grains broken between 1-2% (Proctor, 1994). As shown in Figure 1, the millet grain thresher is a machine that works by the farmer adding the millet seed in the designated slot, then the rotation cylinder inside the machine will separate the seed from their panicles and the bulk from the straw, and finally, the unused tissues are discharged at the other end (see the video in the Practical Links section2) </p>
<p>[[Image:MILKC.webp|thumb|centre|Figure 1. Example of a millet grain thresher. See reference 4]]</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Cost And Critical Analysis </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The millet grain thresher can improve production by incentivizing farmers to grow millet on more land, as manual threshing is currently a major limitation. On the other hand, the millet thresher is expensive, and difficult to transport because of its large size and weight and expense. The average price for a medium size unit of a portable millet grain thresher is $3,000 USD, while a larger industrial unit costs $80,000 – $100,000 USD (Made-in-China, 2022). The high cost enlightens a simple problem: in most developing countries, the majority of the population earns an average of $1-2 U.S. dollars per day (Our World in Data, 2019), so the machinery is not affordable. The population that could most benefit from this equipment in Africa and South Asia simply cannot afford it.</p>

<p>One solution to the high cost is to form a collective (e.g., women’s farmer group) to share the cost of a millet grain thresher. A good example of that is the farmer collective, Alluvial Agriculture in Nigeria, which reached an agreement with the tractor maker John Deere and the Indian conglomerate Tata group, to provide farming equipment to 100,000 smallholder farmers (Next Billion, 2018). Another approach is to offer microenterprise loans to a local entrepreneur who can purchase the equipment and offer a fee-for-service to women in the village. Alternatively, governments or NGOs need to offer large subsidies or low-cost loans such as the project led by the LAFC (see the practical link section3). . Over time, farmers using the thresher will save money, use less labour, and will produce more.</p>

<p>On the other hand, developing countries in Africa might be hurt by machinery since “the agricultural sector employs an average of 54 percent of the working population. In Burundi, Burkina Faso, and Madagascar, more than 80 percent of the labor force works in agriculture” (Sow, 2017). The reduced need for agricultural general labour would increase the unemployment rate, though this concern is not relevant at the village/household level.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>There is unequal access to the millet grain thresher, likely due to a lack of knowledge and its high cost. As an example of similar machinery, in 2014, there were less than 10 maize thresher machinery sets per square kilometre of farmland in Africa, compared to 257 sets in the United Kingdom, 200 in the United States, 130 in India and 125 in Brazil”(Next Billion, 2018). Farmers in remote regions follow the practices of their ancestors, with no way to know that there is a more efficient method to thresh millet.</p>

<p>Transport is a significant problem since the millet grain thresher is a heavy piece of machinery, which may require good roads, a truck and a forklift to install which may be challenging in remote regions in many developing nations (readers are encouraged to check the weight of the thresher in the thresher for sale useful link).</p>

<p>Another challenge is that this piece of equipment can easily malfunction or break down, but repairs in remote regions would be challenging, and transporting it to a repair shop would be expensive.</p>

<p>More importantly, the thresher is a machine that requires gas or electricity, so for a farmer to be able to use it, they must have reliable access to a source of energy, which is not necessarily the case in Africa nor in some parts of India. The electricity access report of 2020 shows that some developing countries have less than 20% of their population with access to electricity (Our World in Data, 2020)</p>

<p>A final problem that has been reported by farmers with farm machinery is injury, perhaps due to a lack of training, combined with high rates of illiteracy. A study done in the US stated that at least 11,880 injuries, and 368 farm-related injuries, occurred in the US alone in 2020 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,2022).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A millet grain thresher is a machine that offers farmers the possibility to thresh their millet faster than traditional methods, with much less labour, ultimately promoting the growth of millets which are highly nutritious. However, it is expensive and requires maintenance and training. It may be most appropriate for commercial farmers, a farmer cooperative or a village-level entrepreneur offering it for a fee-for-service. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.12 page-0001.webp|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Practical Resources To Get Started</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Josh Heikkila, (2011, October 25). Threshing millet [0.14]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/UusHepsdcJY</p>
<p>2. Hank Weiwei Machine, (2022,September 29). millet thresher machine [0.10]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/7vl8Q2PbXIE</p>
<p>3. LAFC. Lending for African Food Security. https://www.lendingforafricanfarming.com </p>
<p>4. Thresher for sale useful link: https://www.alibaba.com/showroom/millet-thresher-machine.html</p>
<p>5. Thresher for sale useful link: https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/millet-thresher-25293103130.html</p>

<p><b>Picture based training lessons for farmers</b></p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.12_south_asian_eng.pdf
5 versions</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Norman, J. (n/d). Andrew Meikle Invents the Threshing Machine. History of Information. https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=4656
Mistra, D. and Satapathy, S. (2018). Musculoskeletal & Risk Assessment during Threshing of Rice-Grain. MATEC Web of Conferences 172, 05005 https://www.matec-conferences.org/articles/matecconf/pdf/2018/31/matecconf_icdams2018_05005.pdf</p>
<p> 2. Proctor, D.L. (1994). Grain storage techniques Evolution and trends in developing countries. FAO, Rome. https://www.fao.org/3/t1838e/T1838E0p.htm#Technical%20alternatives </p>
<p>3. Taizy (2022) .Thresher machine, for rice, wheat, millet. Taizy Company. https://www.agriculture-machine.com/big-thresher-for-rice-wheat-beans-sorghum-millet/</p>
<p>4. Our World in Data (2019). Median income or expenditure per day 2019. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/daily-median-income?country=OWID_WRL~ESP~KOR~MDG </p>
<p>5. Our World in Data (2020). Access to energy in 2020. https://ourworldindata.org/energy-access </p>
<p>6. Made-in-China (2022). Thresher price. https://www.made-in-china.com/price/thresher-price.html?prodPhrase=&minProdPrice=&maxProdPrice=&minNumOrder=&businessType=&order=price_desc
</p>
<p>7. Next billion (2018, April 30). Africa’s Biggest Farmer Collective to Help 100,000 in Niger Delta as Tata and John Deere Sign Alluvial Initiative. https://nextbillion.net/news/press-release-africas-biggest-farmer-collective-help-100000-niger-delta-tata-john-deere-sign-alluvial-initiative/ </p>
<p>8. Sow, M. (2017, January 11). Figures of the week: Sub-Saharan Africa’s labor market in 2017. Brookings Institute, USA. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/africa-in-focus/2017/01/11/figures-of-the-week-sub-saharan-africas-labor-market-in-2017/ </p>
<p>9. Victor Farm Machinery (2022). Maize Thresher Machine Price in Nigeria and South Africa. https://www.cornmachine.com/maize-thresher-machine-price.html</p>
<p>10. Goron, T.L. and Raizada, M.N. (2015) Genetic diversity and genomic resources available for the small millet crops to accelerate a New Green Revolution. Frontiers in Plant Science 6, 157. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2015.00157/full</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>

Chili-pepper-value-addition

2026-04-15T14:36:41Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.10c - Chili Peppers As a Value Addition </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Lucas Gaiger,University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.webp|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Making a chilli seedbed, Solar drying of chillies, Making chilli powder, Drying and storing chillies, Transplanting chillies (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-chilli-seedbed?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i>https://www.accessagriculture.org/solar-drying-chillies?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-chilli-powder?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/drying-and-storing-chillies?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/transplanting-chillies?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Gaiger,L. (2025) Chili Peppers As a Value Addition. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph,Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
</div>
<div class="ch-navber" style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between;">
<div class="center-side" style="max-width: 100%;margin-right: 3%;">
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>For smallholder farmers chili peppers (Capsicum annum L.) have the potential to be a crop to which increased commercial value can be added after harvest. Many smallholder farmers do grow chilies: however, some sell them fresh, at peak harvest season, which leads to low profits and post-harvest losses (Purba et al., 2022). However, by processing chilies into value-added products, like dried chilies, pickled chilies, chili powder, and pickled chilies, farmers can increase their profitability, extend the shelf life of chilies, and create an extra source of income in the post-harvest season. Below we will explore the importance of value addition in chili processing, we will review low-cost methods accessible to smallholder farmers and look at case studies of chili farmers in countries where there are large populations of subsistence farmers. </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Opportunities of Fresh Chili Peppers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">

<p>At harvest, chili peppers contain between 60-85% water; this is what makes them perish quickly and prone to fungal contamination (Purba et al., 2022). Without proper handling, post-harvest losses can be between 30-50%; this reduces farmers’ earnings by a considerable amount. Additionally, the prices of fresh chilis are volatile; they often plummet at peak harvest season due to the market being flooded with them. A benefit to drying chilies is that they can be stored for months or years if done properly; this can be an opportunity for income stability (Lukas et al., 2023). So, what can be done to help farmers achieve this? </p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Processing Techniques: Low-Cost Chili Drying Methods </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>Sun Drying:</b></p> Drying chilies is great because it increases their economic value, shelf life, and makes them much easier to transport because it lowers their weight and volume (Lukas et al., 2023). Many women farmers already have experience in sun drying; I will describe a technique for sun drying chilies from Malawi to empower youth in business. The simplest method is open-air sun drying, which farmers can do with minimal equipment. In this method, farmers spread their harvested ripe chilies on a clean surface like a mat or tarpauline and leave them under direct sunlight (Munthali et al., 2023). Chilies should be cleaned and sorted before drying; this involves removing stems, leaves, and damaged chilies, which will prevent mold. For best results, farmers can build or use inexpensive drying racks that are 1 to 1.5 meters wide and 1 meter high; this is to keep the chilies off of the ground when they are drying (Munthali et al., 2023). With good sun, chilies should be able to dry between several days and a few weeks, depending on the weather; the goal is for the chilies to be around 10% moisture content by weight (Munthali et al., 2023). Simple sun drying is cheap but there are challenges: insects, dust, and rodents can contaminate the chilies when they are drying; this is also why it is important to dry them off the ground (Balana et al., 2024). Proper drying techniques can really help transform fresh chilies into a stable product that can add value for the farmers. By simply drying fresh chilies, farmers can add a value of 1.06 USD/kg (Purba et al., 2022). </p>
<p>[[Image:Dried chillis.webp|thumb|centre| Fig 1. Dried chilies: |Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Fig 1. Dried chilies: This image is from Pixabay and was published prior to July 2017 under the Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication license https://web.archive.org/web/20161229043156/https://pixabay.com/en/service/terms/</p>
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</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 style="background: #FBB03B;padding: 15px;font-weight: 600;color: #000;font-size: 22px;margin:unset;text-align:center;">Method for Preserving Chilies</h1>
<div style="background: #FFD8A4;padding: 15px;font-weight: 400;color: #212529;font-size: 16px;margin:unset;line-height: 1.5;">
<p><b>Pickling:</b></p> One of the most common and effective methods for preserving chili peppers is pickling them. Pickling chilies relies on the controlled breakdown of food components to prolong their shelf life and enhance flavour. Pickling is fermenting the chilies using salt to maintain texture, reduce microbial growth, and make sure there is the proper level of acidity that is required for proper preservation (Sultana et al., 2014). </p>
<p>[[Image:Pickled chillies.webp|thumb|centre|Fig 2. Pickled chilies|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>Fig 2. Pickled chilies: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/</p>
<p>Steps for pickling chilies from eHingiriSoko (https://ehingirisoko.digital/eng), a Rwandan based digital market ecosystem:</p>
<p>1. Clean the chilies – Rinse well with clean water and slice the chilies to allow brine to soak in,</p>
<p>2. Fill a clean glass jar or bottle with the chilies, packing them tightly.</p>
<p>3. Make brine – by boiling:</p>
<p>- 1 cup of vinegar</p>
<p>- 1 cup of clean water</p>
<p>- 1 tablespoon of salt</p>
<p>- 1 teaspoon of sugar</p>
<p>- Add garlic or spices as desired.</p>
<p>4. Pour the hot brine over the chilies until they are covered.</p>
<p>5. Close the jar tightly and let it cool.</p>
<p>6. Store in a cool, shaded place or refrigerate if possible. Wait 2-3 days before using, as the flavour improves with time.
This method will help preserve chilies for up to months and add value to surplus harvest.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Market Opportunities </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>By processing fresh chilies into dried chili, pickled chilies, chili powder, or sambal (chili sauce), farmers can increase their market value and at the same time prolong their shelf life (Purba et al., 2022). Fresh chilies spoil quickly; after 3 days at room temperature, they will be past their best before expiry date (Lukas et al., 2023). Processing those chilies into longer-lasting products can prevent post-harvest losses and create new economic opportunities. Value addition can happen through drying, grinding, and making chili-based products which can make them more usable, stabilize prices, and boost incomes for smallholder farmers. If chili input prices are stable, there is the possibility of an added value ratio of 50% (Rianti & Saputro, 2023).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Markets </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><b>● India:</b></p> In the Indian state of Karnataka, the market for dried chilies is growing, while the demand for green and red chilies slows (Sandeep & Thimmaiah, 2020). The urban demand for processed chili products like chutneys, paste, and powder is increasing, showing how value adding techniques are important to their marketplaces. Sandeep and Thimmaiah (2020) identified three major value chains, where value addition came from drying, grading, sorting, assembly, packing, and handling. Value addition costs range from 7.47 USD to 11.33 USD per quintal (100 kg) (Sandeep & Thimmaiah, 2020), depending on the processor. Even though farmers are significant contributors to the process, wholesalers and processors are the ones who capture the highest share of the value addition by using mechanization for processing, packaging, and transportation. This is because these firms have the advantage of economies of scale, and use it to their advantage to produce more for less. This does not necessarily mean farmers are being taken advantage of by these production/processing firms, but farmers should be aware they probably will not be the biggest benefactors of their own work. It is also a warning for farmers to watch out for predatory producers/processors that could be looking to take advantage of them. There are some ways for smallholder farmers to gain some more bargaining power, for example they can form farmer producer organizations which can help link smallholders to organized markets. They can do this by providing access to inputs, and reducing reliance on middlemen, however, there are some big challenges in building effective farmer producer organizations (Chowdhury et al., 2024). </p>

<p><b>Bangladesh Cost-Benefit Analysis:</b></p> Islam et al. (2020) did a thorough analysis of the risks and rewards of chili production in Bangladesh, however no value adding activities were included.</p>
<p><b>1. Total Cost of Chili Production</b></p>
<p>a. The average total production cost per hectare was USD $4,468. These included expenses like buying seeds, fertilizers, pest control, and land preparation.</p>
<p>b. Hired labour was the highest single cost component (15%) followed by pesticide costs (12%).</p>
<p><b>2. Revenue and Profitability</b></p>
<p>a. Gross margin (revenue minus variable costs) was USD $6,354 per hectare.</p>
<p>b. Net return (after deducting all costs) was USD $4,274 per hectare.</p>
<p>c. The cost-benefit ratio was 1.96, meaning for every 1 dollar spent on production, farmers would earn USD $1.96 in revenue, nearly doubling their investment. </p>
<p>d. Islam et al. (2020) found that 86% of farmers reported net returns, and were making a profit from growing chilis.</p>
<p><b>3. Challenges affecting profitability</b></p>
<p>a. Disease: anthracnose (mentioned below) caused a 4% loss of yield, resulting in a loss of USD $479 per hectare.</p>
<p>b. Chemical pesticides: Farmers spent USD $525 per hectare on pesticides.</p>
<p>The above numbers were gathered by Islam et al. (2020). It is important to note that these farmers did not use any value additions, so it would be possible to improve economic returns by trying some strategies already reviewed like pickling or drying chilis. </p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Challenges and Solutions</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Anthracnose is a disease that poses the biggest risk to chili pepper production around the world. It is a fungus which naturally inhabits the soil; plants become affected when already contaminated surfaces come into contact with the stems, fruits, or leaves (Islam et al., 2020). This usually happens through unclean farm tools, hands, or splashing water carrying dirt (Saxena et al., 2015). Some symptoms of anthracnose on chilies are sunken or discolored tissue with rings, eventually turning parts of the chili brown, then black (Islam et al., 2020). This infection puts the chili at risk of being infected by other fungal diseases, like Aspergillus flavus, which could create the production of aflatoxins which are dangerous to humans.</p>
<p>What are some cheap and effective solutions to reduce the likelihood of anthracnose? To reduce the risk of fungi, farmers can use mulches to mitigate water splashing, crop rotations with non-host species, thoroughly clean their farm tools, and ensure that they are maintaining proper farm-worker hygiene (Islam et al., 2020). Farmers should also ensure they wear long sleeves, safety goggles, and gloves when handling chili peppers in any manner. They should also make sure they avoid touching their eyes or bare skin with their gloves or hands before washing them as chili peppers will burn. </p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion and Gender Implications </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The goal of using chili peppers as a value addition product should be to help women farmers earn some extra income to scale up production to the point where they can produce vegetables consistently. Doing this will help them send their children to school (especially girls), pay for medicine/healthcare and hopefully improve their overall quality of life. For example, Njuki et al. (2011) found that when women retain control over income, especially from locally traded crops, they tend to spend more on food, education, and clothing for their children. In the study men spent 6% of their income on food compared to the 23% spent by women on food, so if women can make improve their income with value addition crops, this will benefit the children as well. It is also fair to say that the same would happen with other areas like education, especially for young girls. However, the study also warned that as crops become more profitable, men often try or find a way to take control, reducing women’s economic gains. So, ensuring that women can retain control over chili-based enterprises is key for not only their economic empowerment but for their childrens’ development as well. By focusing on chilies, a crop that can be preserved, processed, and sold in many different ways, women can access both local and niche markets to generate income and hopefully can keep autonomy over how that income is to be used.</p>

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<h1 class="title-bg">Helpful Links to Get Started</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>This is a video for sun drying chilies: https://www.accessagriculture.org/drying-and-storing-chillies</p>
<p>his is a video for solar drying techniques which can reduce drying time by 50% (Watson et al., 2021) but is a more complex operation than sun drying: https://www.accessagriculture.org/solar-drying-chillies </p>
<p>Once a farmer has dried chilies, a good option is to make chili powder with them. Chili pepper seasoning is a good value-addition because it will last a long time and has exceptionally good value added at 4.24 USD/kg (Purba et al., 2022). Sambal (chili sauce) varies by region, but in Indonesia is has an added value of 19.54 USD/kg.</p>

<p>Here is a great video on making chili powder: https://www.accessagriculture.org/making-chilli-powder
FAO Standard for Dried or Dehydrated Chili Pepper and Paprika: https://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/sh-proxy/en/?lnk=1&url=https%253A%252F%252Fworkspace.fao.org%252Fsites%252Fcodex%252FStandards%252FCXS%2B353-2022%252FCXS_353e.pdf</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Balana, B., Popoola, O., Yamauchi, F., Olanipekun, C., Totin, E., Salaudeen, K., Muhammad, A., Shi, W., Liu, Y. (2024). Solar Drying Technology for Post-harvest Loss Management of Horticulture Products: Findings from Baseline Survey in Nigeria. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg), & Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute (NSPRI). https://cgspace.cgiar.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/16c5937c-a315-4ed4-84cb-2ede6b33b4ea/content</p>
<p>2.Chowdhury, S. R., Ghosh, D., & Rao, T. J. (2024). Sentiment and success potential of farmers’ producer organizations: A systematic literature review. Local Economy the Journal of the Local Economy Policy Unit, 39 (1-2), 92-104 https://doi.org/10.1177/02690942241292724</p>
<p>3.eHingirisoko (2025) Chilies as a Value Addition and Food Safety Module https://ehingirisoko.digital/eng/articles/chillies/value_addition#:~:text=The%20stems%20and%20leaves%20are,mould%20growth%20and%20fungal%20contamination</p>
<p>4.Islam, A. H. M. S., Schreinemachers, P., & Kumar, S. (2020). Farmers’ knowledge, perceptions and management of chili pepper anthracnose disease in Bangladesh. Crop Protection, 133, 105139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2020.105139</p>
<p>5.Lukas, A., Kairupan, A. N., Hendriadi, A., Arianto, A., Manalu, L. P., Sumarno, L., Munarso, J., Hadipernata, M., Elmatsani, H. M., Benyamin, B. O., Junaidi, A., Djafar, M. J., Elizabeth, R., Sahlan, N., Nasruddin, N., Astuti, P., Subandrio, N., Yohanes, H., Koeslulat, E. E., . . . Polakitan, A. (2023). Fresh Chili Agribusiness: opportunities and problems in Indonesia. In IntechOpen eBooks. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112786</p>
<p>6.Munthali, C., Banda, D., & Corporate Institute of Horticulture. (2023). A Guide to Commercial Chilli Cultivation in Malawi. Corporate Institute of Horticulture, Malawi. https://agrijobs.snrd-africa.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Chilli-AgriBusiness-Course-Training-Manual-for-trainers_MW_EN_09.2023.pdf</p>
<p>7.Njuki, J., Kaaria, S., Chamunorwa, A., & Chiuri, W. (2011). Linking smallholder farmers to markets, gender and Intra-Household dynamics: Does the choice of commodity matter? European Journal of Development Research, 23(3), 426–443. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2011.8</p>
<p>8.Purba, H. J., Ariningsih, E., Septanti, K. S., Suharyono, S., & Sinuraya, J. F. (2022). Gaining added value of chili (Capsicum annum L.) through processing and its challenges: A case in Bandung, West Java. E3S Web of Conferences, 361, 01011. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202236101011</p>
<p> 9.Rianti, T. S. M., & Saputro, A. J. (2023). An added value of chili processing results in providing contribution for SMEs. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Multidisciplinary Sciences for Humanity in Society 5.0 Era (ICOMSH 2022) (pp. 94–102). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-204-0_9</p>
<p>10.Sandeep, K. T., & Thimmaiah, N. (2020). Significance of value chain analysis for chilli - the case of Karnataka chilli market. The Journal of Research ANGRAU, 48(1), 46–52. https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20203306926</p>
<p>11.Saxena, A. (2015). Epidemiology and management of anthracnose of chilli [Doctoral dissertation, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry].Shodhganga. https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/220269</p>
<p>12.Watson, A. G., Aleckovic, S., & Nallamothu, R. (2021). A novel and improved solar drying system appropriate for smallholder farmers. Drying Technology, 40(11), 2274–2282. https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2021.1931295</p>
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</div>

Simple-clay-pot-cooler-to-prevent-spoilage

2026-04-15T14:35:42Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.7 - Simple clay pot cooler to prevent spoilage</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Gryphon Theriault-Loubier, University of Guelph, Canada
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[[File:Pot.webp|300px]]
<P><I>Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tonkrugk%C3%BChler,_Clay_pot_cooler,_Canari_Frigo.jpg</i></p>
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Theriault-Loubier,G(2022) Simple clay pot cooler to prevent spoilage. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>It is estimated that between $200-300 million dollars (USD) worth of produce perish each year due to lack of adequate storage infrastructure (Chaurasia, 2005). The reduction of food spoilage is critical to ensuring that developing markets can remain competitive (Tomada, 1992).
The pot-in-pot (PiP) storage system is a promising method of providing portable, affordable refrigeration to parts of the world without electricity (Mittal, 2006). The pot is used to preserve vegetarian food in India (Date, 2012), and has been analyzed for its heat transfer properties, with a recorded decrease in temperature of 10.4˚C lower than ambient temperature in low humidity environments (Aimiuwu, 1992). Variations of this technology have been reported in West Africa (Aimiuwu, 2008), India (Date, 2012), and the Middle East (Mittal, 2006). The technology has been reported to be highly effective for storage of various fruits and vegetables including tomatoes, Guavas, Rocket (A leafy green), Okra and Carrots (Longmone 2003; Chaurasia et al. 2005; Odesola and Onyebuchi, 2009)
The technology is simple. A smaller pot is placed in a larger pot; the empty space between the pots is then filled with sand. Water is added to saturate the sand - as the water evaporates, it draws heat along with it, cooling the air and contents of the inner pot (Mittal, 2006). The PiP is based on the well-known principle of evaporative cooling. Just as the human body sweats during exposure to heat or while exercising to cool itself, the PIP slowly evaporates water contained in the outer pot, drawing heat with it, to effectively cool the air of the inner pot (Mittal, 2006).
Sand acts as an insulator, reducing the amount of water needed to reach the desired temperature (Mittal, 2006). A damp cloth is sometimes put over top of the inner pot. The outer pot should be highly porous and importantly, not glazed. A glazed pot will not allow water to effectively escape the vessel. Conversely, some trials have suggested that the inner pot be glazed or otherwise water-tight so as to prevent the entrance of moisture. This is especially important if the water is not potable.
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<h3 class="title-bg">Possible Benefits </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A PiP system is based on revived indigenous knowledge which is easily transferrable, not patented, and extremely low-cost (around $1 per pot). Outer pots could be decorated as a form of branding and designed to be stackable. Many cultures already make and use pots and have sand available.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>A PiP system would work best in high temperature, low humidity climates. As the humidity rises, the capacity of the water to evaporate, and thereby cool the contents of the second pot, is diminished. Additionally, high temperature and low humidity areas could be prone to drought, and a PiP system requires a constant, though relatively little supply of water. Saltwater could also be used. Unintended sealing of PiPs might trap plant-derived ethylene gas, a hormone which triggers ripening (Barry, 2007); in this situation, the produce could be placed in an ethylene adsorbent bag placed within the PiP. PiPs add shipping weight and bulk and would not likely be carried to market by hand. One might build a larger, semi-permanent structure on a small trailer which could be unloaded or loaded. One such (non-mobile) structure built of double walled brick was found to reduce ambient temperature inside the chamber by up to 14˚C while reducing shrinkage by 15-70% (Chaurasia, 2005).</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.7.webp|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.7_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.7e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.7subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.7:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.7latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 8.5:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.5n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Further Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Pots based on this system (known as zeer pots) can be purchased by visiting Practical Action or by phoning +44 (0) 1926 634400. There are also detailed instructions available for local construction.</p>
<p><b>Contact Person:</b>
Mr. Mohammed Bah Abba – Jigawa State Polytechnic, College of Business and Management Studies, Sani Abacha Way, P.M.B 7040, Dutse, Jigawa State, Nigeria</p>

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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1.Aimiuwu, Victor O. (1992). Evaporative cooling of water in hot arid regions. Energy Convers. Mgmt Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 69-74.</p>
<p>2.Aimiuwu, Victor O. (2008). An energy-saving ceramic cooler for hot arid regions (2008). Proceedings of the national society of black physicists.. </p>
<p>3.Barry, C. S., & Giovannoni, J. J. (2007). Ethylene and fruit ripening. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 26(2), 143-159</p>
<p>4.Chaurasia, P. B. L., Singh, H., & Prasad, R. N. (2005). Passive cool chamber for preservation of fresh vegetables. SESI Journal : Journal of the Solar Energy Society of India, 15(1), 47-57.</p>
<p>5.Date, A.W. (2012). Heat and Mass transfer Analysis of clay-pot refridgerator. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 55 (2012) 3977–3983</p>
<p>6.Evaporative cooling. (2003). Appropriate Technology, 30(3), 64-67. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/200022214?accountid=11233</p>
<p>7.Mittal, A., Kataria, T., Das, G. K., & Chatterjee, S. G. (2006). Evaporative cooling of water in a small vessel under varying ambient humidity. International Journal of Green Energy, 3(4), 347-368.</p>
<p>8.Odesola, I., and Onyebuchi, O. (2009). A review of porous evaporative cooling for the preservation of fruits and vegetables. The Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 10 (2), 935-941.</p>
<p>9.Tomoda, Shizue. "Recent Developments in the Food and Drink Industries." International Labour Review 131.4 (1992): 431-.</p>
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</div>

Anti-ripening-bags-for-fruits

2026-04-15T14:34:20Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.6 - Anti-ripening fruit bags </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Paige McDonald, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.webp|300px]]
<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>McDonald,P. (2022) Anti-ripening fruit bags . In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Introduction</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Many smallholder farmers rely on the trading of fruits for income. Women are the most active sellers, making up roughly two thirds of the sellers, with 30% of them being children (Moyane et al., 2012). It was reported that over half of women’s income come from selling fruits as it is there only source of livelihood (Moyane et al., 2012). Therefore, post-harvest loss due to fruit ripening can have a negative impact on a farmer’s income. It has been reported that 40-50% of horticultural crops are lost before they can even be consumed due to fruit decay during post-harvest handling (Ahmad et al., 2015). Approximately one third of all fresh fruits and vegetables are lost before they are able to reach consumers (Ahmad et al., 2015). Diets that lack the incorporation of fruits and vegetables are often deficient in micronutrients such as iron, folic acid, vitamin A and zinc. A deficiency in micronutrients has the greatest impact on women, children, and the elderly (Tulchinsky, 2010). Deficiencies in micronutrients can contribute to birth defects, immune deficiency, stunting, obesity, thyroid deficiency, colorectal cancer, and cardiovascular diseases (Tulchinsky, 2010).</p>
<p>The loss of fruits is largely blamed on the lack of refrigeration, resulting in ripening and rotting (Moyane et al., 2012). While there is nothing that can be done to fully stop ripening, there are some innovations that can be implemented to slow it down. Anti-ripening fruit bags are a way to mitigate this food waste and preserve foods. This type of packaging extends the shelf life of foods, while maintaining their nutritional quality, inhibiting the growth of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms (Keep it Fresh, 2022). Anti-ripening fruit bags are made with d2p ethylene adsorber technology developed to reduce spoilage of fresh fruit and vegetables (Keep it Fresh, 2022). Ethylene is a gas hormone that is released by fruits that causes the ripening of climactic and non-climatic fruits (Gaikwad et al.,2020). Climatic fruits include apples, bananas, mangos, and melons, while non climatic fruits include strawberries, grapes, and raspberries. In African regions it is climacteric fruits that are primarily grown, including apples, bananas, melons, and tomatoes An increase in ethylene also triggers a rise in respiration; this causes the colour of the fruit to change. Once ripening has been initiated by ethylene, the process cannot be stopped. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Details And The Usage Of Anti-Ripening Fruit Bags </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When fruit start to ripen, they release the gas hormone ethylene, which accelerates the ripening of nearby fruits (Etana, 2018). An effective way to govern the production of ethylene is through the use of an ethylene absorber, which takes ethylene out of circulation. Often the absorbing agent is an ethylene-permeable sachet, or fine particles of clay incorporated into packaging film (Gaikwad et al.,2020; Mabusela et al., 2021). Absorbers are materials that physically absorb and hold the ethylene molecule from the surrounding environment (Gaikwad et al.,2020) . The low oxygen environment and high carbon dioxide levels in packaging are able to reduce the ethylene accumulation and respiration rates of the fruits (Gaikwad et al., 2020).</p>
<p>Once fruits are harvested or purchased, they are placed in the bags, which should then be tied at the top or simply folded and then kept in a cool dry location. This practice will allow for an extended life of the fruit, allowing it to be sold in markets at a higher price. These bags are environmentally friendly and are easy to use; a male or female farmer can use them; and they require no extra physical labour since the bags are light weight they are easy to store and transport. The bags can also be reused multiple times if they are not damaged, which makes them even more sustainable. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Benefits Of Anti-Ripening Fruit Bags </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Anti-ripening fruit bags can increase income by 40-60% (Acedo Jr et al., 2010). Ethylene absorbing packaging has been shown to prolong the life of many fruits such as bananas, apples, broccoli, and mangos. One experiment showed that, ethylene absorbing technologies could extended the life of harvested bananas for up to 18-36 days, broccoli for 20 days, mangos for up to 16 days, and apples up to 12 days (Wei, 2021). This technology is an excellent way to prolong quality and reduce waste without having to substantially increase costs (Wei, 2021). Using the brand “Keep it Fresh” as an example, an ethylene adsorbing bag costs 0.50 USD per bag or 2 bags for $1 USD and are re-usable (Keep it Fresh, 2022). This method is very practical as traditional cool storage or refrigeration is not always accessible as only 43% of the population in Sub Saharan Africa have access to electricity while 80% of people live without it (Tapsoba et al., 2021). Cool storage can conserve the fruit, but it cannot prevent it from spoilage or damage. However, if cool storage was combined with ethylene absorbing packaging it could have a synergistic effect. Effective storage is crucial to improve agricultural incomes and food security for small scale farmers. </p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Anti-ripening fruit bags are a post-harvest option to consider when trying to be cost efficient, ecofriendly, and sustainable. The bags are made by multiple companies, making the product easily accessible. Typically, the bags come in small sizes, each bag measures 17” x 7” x 4” and is gusseted, allowing for extra room (Keep it Fresh, 2022). The bags are sold in packs ranging from 10-30 reusable bags per package. The produce bags are reusable and washable for up to 10 uses (Keep it Fresh, 2022).The bags have been shown to prolong the life of mangos, bananas, broccoli, and apples, as noted above, but they could also be used for fresh cut flowers, and high value herbs such as cilantro. There are also wholesale vendors that are available that would be even more cost efficient but require bulk orders. These bags can be sold in local markets with a marketing strategy using picture-based lessons (see below). In order to initiate farmer demand, “Keep it Fresh bags” could be promoted on Farm Radio International to raise awareness. While there are many benefits to this product, two challenges are its small volume and the long-term plastic waste that it generates; a biodegradable version is needed,</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Conclusion</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>When considering ways to improve farmers income and reduce food for smallholder farmers in Africa and elsewhere, anti-ripening fruit bags have potential. As just one example, the amount of food lost in South Africa due to poor post-harvest handling is equivalent to 2.1% of that country’s annual GDP (Nahman et al., 2013). It is already known that ethylene absorbing packaging has the ability to extend the life of fruits and vegetables for longer periods of time. Implementing this technology so that it is readily available for smallholder famers could reduce waste and improve incomes.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.6 page-0001.webp|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Further Information Regarding Ethylene Absorbing Packaging </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9QAWl_G9geo&t=4s
Video explain how to use anti rippeing fruit bags</p>

<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCOo7BFb1ZA&t=109s
Video explain how ethylene affects fruits</p>

<p>https://conservatis.com/en/home/ethylene-absorbent-bag
Ethylene removing bags from a wholesaler: quantity of 400- unit price of €0.27</p>

<p>https://www.purchasekart.com/collections/keep-it-fresh/products/map-bags
Freshness bags sold in boxes</p>

<p>https://www.fao.org/3/au186e/au186e.pdf
Information on post-harvest handling and packaging</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">References</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Acedo Jr, A. L., & Weinberger, K. (2010). Vegetables postharvest: Simple techniques for increased income and market. AVRDC: The World Vegetable Center. Taiwan and GTZ-Regional Economic Development Program. Cambodia (KH). https://avrdc.org/aarnet/download/manuals/Veg_PHT_guide_2nd_Edition_Eng_Final.pdf</p>

<p>2. Ahmad, M. S., & Siddiqui, M. W. (2015). Factors affecting postharvest quality of fresh fruits. In Postharvest Quality Assurance of Fruits (pp. 7–32). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21197-8_2</p>

<p>3. Boz, Z., Welt, B. A., Brecht, J. K., Pelletier, W., McLamore, E., Kiker, G. A., & Butler, J. E. (2018). Review of challenges and advances in modification of food package headspace gases. Journal of Applied Packaging Research, 10(1), 5, 64</p>

<p>4. Etana, M. B. (2018). Review on the effects of ethylene (C2H4) on quality of fresh fruit and vegetable. The case of banana and tomato. Basic Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Review, 6(5), 34-38.</p>

<p>5. Gaikwad, K. K., Singh, S., & Negi, Y. S. (2020). Ethylene scavengers for active packaging of fresh food produce. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 18(2), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-019-00938-1</p>

<p>6. Mabusela, B. P., Belay, Z. A., Godongwana, B., Pathak, N., Mahajan, P. V., Mathabe, P. M. K., & Caleb, O. J. (2021). Trends in ethylene management strategies: towards mitigating postharvest losses along the South African value chain of fresh produce - a review. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 38(5), 347–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/02571862.2021.1938260</p>

<p>7. Moyane, J. N., Mashau, M. E., & Jideani, I. A. (2012). Assessment of post-harvest losses of fruits at Tshakhuma fruit market in Limpopo Province, South Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(29), 4145–4150. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR12.392</p>

<p>8. Nahman, A., & de Lange, W. (2013). Costs of food waste along the value chain: Evidence from South Africa. Waste Management (Elmsford), 33(11), 2493–2500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.07.012</p>

<p>9. Saltveit, M. E. (1999). Effect of ethylene on quality of fresh fruits and vegetables. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 15(3), 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-5214(98)00091-X</p>

<p>10. Tapsoba, L. D. S., Kiemde, S. M. A., Lamond, B. F., & Lépine, J. (2022). On the potential of packaging for reducing fruit and vegetable losses in sub-Saharan Africa. Foods, 11(7), 952–. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11070952</p>

<p>11. Tulchinsky, T.H. Micronutrient deficiency conditions: Global health issues. Public Health Rev 32, 243–255 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391600

<p>12. Wei, H., Seidi, F., Zhang, T., Jin, Y., & Xiao, H. (2021). Ethylene scavengers for the preservation of fruits and vegetables: A review. Food Chemistry, 337, 127750–127750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127750</p>
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Improved-grain-storage-delays-grain-sales-until-prices-are-high

2026-04-15T14:33:44Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.5 - Improving grain storage to delay sales until commodity prices are high </h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Grant Larizza, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.webp|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Storing and managing maize in a warehouse, Let's store our maize well, (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/storing-and-managing-maize-warehouse?cat_id=1499</i></p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/lets-store-our-maize-well?cat_id=165</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Larizza,G (2022) Improving grain storage to delay sales until commodity prices are high. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Improving storage, specifically in regards to grains, is absolutely essential to increase profits for smallholder farmers. Poor storage causes decay in the grain, which means the product must be sold before this occurs or later at a lower quality. Either of these options means that a farmer has to sell their grain at a lower price. The focus of this chapter will be on how improved grain storage can be adopted and can help farmers to sell when commodity prices are high. This will be accomplished through a critical analysis of different storage methods as well as practical links to get started. </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How Improved Grain Storage Can Be Adopted by Smallholder Farmers</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Grain is susceptible to different kinds of insects such as the grain borer, maize weevil, and red flour beetle (Dowell et al., 2017). These are common pests that can infiltrate storage areas for grain and eat the harvest. Grain losses due to these pests are very high in developing countries and therefore need to be addressed using viable solutions. One of the most effective methods of improving grain storage in order to combat these insects is through controlling the atmosphere around grain (Dowell et al., 2017). This means lowering the oxygen or raising the carbon dioxide levels within the storage areas (Dowell et al., 2017). These conditions are met within the hermetic technologies discussed below. </p>
<p>Increasing carbon dioxide levels is relatively simple. It can be accomplished by adding composting materials into the grain storage area (Dowell et al., 2017). The decaying compost will raise the carbon dioxide levels so that insect activity is either reduced or nearly stopped altogether due to the death of the pests (Dowell et al., 2017). </p>
<p>Creating a low oxygen, air-tight (hermetic) environment is another method that can be effective at stopping different pests. This can be accomplished with glass jars, metal containers, Ziploc bags or even plastic bags (Dowell et al., 2017). In terms of effectiveness, glass jars and metal containers rank the highest among the items listed above (Dowell et al., 2017). Another strong option is the GrainPro grain storage bag. These are vacuum sealed bags that protect from insect infestation as well as maintain the quality of its contents (www.Grainpro.com). These are much more effective than Ziploc or plastic bags and have a relatively low cost (Dowell et al., 2017). Similarly, Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage (PICS) bags are also highly effective at preventing insects as well as keeping the quality of grain high. These bags will retain the quality of its contents as well as resist against disease (Sudini et al., 2015). Toxin accumulation is noted to be significantly lower in PICS over its cloth counterpart (Sudini etal., 2015).</p>
<p>Another viable option is the use of treated bags or bed nets to stop pests before they enter the grain area. Treated bed nets are readily available online and are an effective method at stopping insects from entering grain storage. The most effective way of using these bed nets is as a netting over top of an existing container filled with grain (Dowell et al., 2017). A study has shown that after one month, there were zero insects found within the grain (Dowell et al., 2017).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How Improved Grain Storage Helps Smallholder Farmers</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>While the points above demonstrate how different practices can be adopted, the other important topic to delve into is how these methods help smallholder farmers. Specifically, 50-60% of cereal grains are lost in the storage process in developing countries due to inadequacies (Kumar et al., 2017). With hermetic storage, this number can be reduced to 1-2% (Kumar et al., 2017). As well, poor storage conditions negatively affect micronutrients in the grain. All of these points demonstrate the need for better storage conditions for grain.</p>
<p>Aside from the positive nutrient benefits, these methods aid farmers in reaping a better profit. One of the biggest issues smallholder farmers currently face is timing in regards to selling grain. When grain storage is poor, the profit received by the farmer will be low due to grain being diseased or destroyed. Furthermore, farmers are forced to sell their grain at whatever the current market price is because they will lose too much if they attempt to wait (Luo et al., 2022). At harvest time, supply will be very large and commodity prices will drop, meaning the farmers will make much less (Luo et al., 2022). Improving grain storage means smallholder farmers can store grain until prices are high and then make the most profit (Luo et al., 2022). For example, within Canada, farmers store their grain within metallic grain silos and keep checking commodity prices until they increase enough for a good profit (Jayas et al., 2003). </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis/ Cost-Benefit </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>While the points mentioned above demonstrate the benefits of improving grain storage, a critical analysis must be completed in order to evaluate the real-world application of these methods.</p>
<p>To begin, the method which uses composting material to increase carbon dioxide levels has zero cost due to the fact that composting materials are found readily on a farm. This can include any plant matter, from decaying leaves to banana peels. The results seem to show that this method is highly effective in terms of pest resistance and cost (Dowell et al., 2017).</p>
<p>Treated bed nets also seem to be an effective option considering the material is readily available within developing countries due to high insect levels affecting humans directly (Dowell et al., 2017). They can also be purchased from Alibaba.com for prices ranging of $1.98 USD - $2.30, depending on the quantity ordered (www.alibaba.com). The corresponding labour cost should be very low as all that is needed is to receive the material and cut it into bag like shapes.</p>
<p>Other storage methods such as glass jars or metal containers do well in terms of protecting against diseases and pests for seeds destined for replanting, but are too small to contain any significant amount of grain for food (Dowell et al., 2017). Making up for this with many containers would take up too much space as well as heavily increasing cost.</p>
<p>Hermetic storage bags are the other method, including GrainPro or PICS bags, are very effective due to the low oxygen conditions they create (Dowell et al., 2017). GrainPro bags are about $0.05 USD/kg and can be ordered from their website (www.grainpro.com) while PICS bags are between $2-4 USD depending on the region (Dowell et al., 2017; www.PICSnetwork.org). Notably, PICS bags are available at many dealers within Africa, and the specific locations can be found on their website (www.PICSnetwork.org). Although hermetic bags are an effective solution to improving grain storage, there have been some observed negatives. Insects can penetrate the bags from the outside which means the bags can get infested and ruin the low oxygen conditions (Dowell et al., 2017). One way to combat this is through raising the bags on pylons (www.grainpro.com). This height will stop certain pests from being able to attack the bags from ground level. Aside from insect prevention, storing grain off the ground serves other benefits. Rainwater and moisture collect on the ground which serves as a breeding area for insects (Zeigler et al., 2021). Keeping away from heavy rainwater collection areas as well as elevating the grain will help prevent the possible damages that could occur.</p>
<p>The economics of grain also play an important role in the selling process. Currently, maize prices have increased by 64% over the course of one year within Southern Africa (FAO, 2022). This means farmers who had to sell early, lost much of this price increase. More generally, however, grain prices are lowest at harvest and much higher late in a dry season or after planting in the subsequent rainy season; good grain storage could take advantage of such price increases. As discussed, oversupply during the harvest season causes a supply and demand imbalance (Luo et al., 2022). Being aware of this as well as commodity prices are both essential to a smallholder farmer but not always viable as markets can be far away. This is where an intermediary (e.g. friend or family member in the city) would be beneficial as they can provide a farmer with updates on market prices via SMS messages or voice calls or personal visits. The intermediary would have to be compensated so some of the profit would be diminished. Currently, farmers will sell their grain through middlemen which removes the hassle of transportation (Woodhouse et al., 2017). Overall, this is negative as a farmer will almost always be selling at a lower price if they do not know the market value.</p>
<p>In conclusion, these observations show the value of improving grain storage. These techniques can be implemented at a relatively low cost and will save smallholder farmers money in the long run. </P>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers </h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.5 page-0001.webp|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.5e.s.a.pdf (South Asia Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.5e.s.a.pdf (East/Southeast Asia Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.5subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf (Sub-Saharan Africa/ Caribbean Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.5latin_america.pdf (Latin America Post Harvest Instructions) </p>
<p>http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.6n._africa_middleeast.pdf (North Africa and Middle East Post Harvest Instructions)</p>
<p>https://www.fao.org/3/t1838e/T1838E12.HTM (Long and Short Term Storage Methods for The Purpose of Drying)</p>

</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Practical Links to Get Started</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1KIO-P1ZsL8 (How to Use Hermetic Storage Bags (PICS)</p>
<p>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05Mb9cmRv3Q (How to Use GrainPro Bags) </p>
<p>https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/WHO-Approved-African-75D-100D-Direct_1600485613553.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.7c0228c8sNNuIs (Link to Buy Treated Bed Net)</p>
<p>https://picsnetwork.org/ (Where to Buy PIC Bags)</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Dowell, F. E., & Dowell, C. N. (2017). Reducing grain storage losses in developing countries. Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods, 9(1), 93–100.</p>

<p>2. GrainPro. (n.d.). GrainPro. https://www.grainpro.com/grainpro-vacuum-bag</p>

<p>3. Kuyu, C. G., Tola, Y. B., Mohammed, A., Mengesh, A., & Mpagalile, J. J. (2022). Evaluation of different grain storage technologies against storage insect pests over an extended storage time. Journal of Stored Products Research, 96, 101945. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2022.101945</p>

<p>4. Luo, Y., Huang, D., Han, Y., & Wu, L. (2022). Storage losses, market development and household maize-selling decisions in China. China Agricultural Economic Review (ahead of print) https://doi.org/10.1108/caer-10-2021-0201</p>

<p>5. Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS). (n.d.). PICS. https://picsnetwork.org/</p>

<p>6. Who Approved African 75d/100d Direct Sell Long Lasting LLIN Treated Nylon Mosquito Net Bed Canopy (n.d.). Alibaba. https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/WHO-Approved-African-75D-100D Direct_1600485613553.html?spm=a2700.galleryofferlist.normal_offer.d_title.7c0228c8sNNuIs</p>

<p>7. Ziegler, V., Paraginski, R. T., & Ferreira, C. D. (2021). Grain storage systems and effects of moisture, temperature and time on grain quality - A review. Journal of Stored Products Research, 91, 101770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2021.101770</p>

<p>8. Kumar, D., & Kalita, P. (2017). Reducing Postharvest Losses during Storage of Grain Crops to Strengthen Food Security in Developing Countries. Food Science & Technology, 6(1), 8.</p>

<p>9. Sudini, H., Ranga Rao, G. V., Gowda, C. L. L., Chandrika, R., Margam, V., Rathore, A., & Murdock, L. L. (2015). Purdue improved crop storage (PICS) bags for safe storage of groundnuts. Journal of Stored Products Research, 64(SI), 133–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2014.09.002 </p>
<p>10. Jayas, D. S., & White, N. D. G. (2003). Storage and drying of grain in Canada: low cost approaches. Food Control, 14(4), 255–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0956-7135(03)00014-8</p>
<p>11. FAO (2022) Prices of key cereal staples continued to rise, but at a slower pace. Food Price Monitoring and Analysis (FPMA), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome (2022, November 11). Www.fao.org. https://www.fao.org/giews/food-prices/regional-roundups/detail/en/c/1618324/</p>

<p>12. Woodhouse, P., Van Veldwisch, G.J., Venot, J-P., Brockinton, D., Komakech, H. and Manjichi, A. (2017) African farmer-led irrigation development: re-framing agricultural policy and investment?, The Journal of Peasant Studies, 44:1, 213-233, DOI: 10.1080/03066150.2016.1219719
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Hermetic-grain-storage-bags

2026-04-15T14:32:43Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.4 - Hermetic grain storage bags</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Gryphon Theriault-Loubier, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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[[File:4.webp|300px]]
<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Storage bag (English translation)(English)(Source: Access Agriculture, SAK Global)</p>
<p><i> https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x06-2oiYhSc</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Theriault-Loubier,G (2022) Hermetic grain storage bags. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>Though often overlooked, effective and affordable food storage technology desperately needs implementation in the developing world to protect from a wide variety of pests such as insects, rodents, and fungi.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Hermetically Sealed Technology</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p><i>Principles</i></p>
<p>Hermetically Sealed Technology (HST) has been proven to be highly effective at preserving grains in many studies. A HST, when properly sealed and maintained, prevents the exchange of oxygen and moisture between the outside atmosphere and the stored grain (IRRI, 2004). This lack of oxygen creates an anaerobic environment; pests which rely on an aerobic environment, like fungal molds and insects are effectively controlled without the use of pesticides or other inputs, which are often out of reach for subsistence farmers (Kamanula et al., 2011).</p>
<p>HSTs have been found to be effective for storage of rice, cocoa beans, coffee, corn, dates, flour, millet, sorghum, sugar and wheat amongst others (GrainPro Inc., 2013). HSTs maintain flavor and aroma, prevent rancidity in foods such as peanuts, control insects and rodents, reduce fungal growth, and maintain harvest weight effectively (GrainPro Inc., 2013). Importantly, HSTs have been found to maintain seed viability for extended periods (FAO, 2011).</p>
<p>In a comparison with commonly used woven polypropylene bags (WPG), hermetic grain bags (HGB) were found to cause 99.5% mortality within 60 days of some common Sub-Saharan African maize pests that were artificially placed in the bags (Ognakossan 2013). In the same study, loss of grain was between 0.5-6% using HGB compared to 19-27% in WPG. Moisture rates were also maintained in the hermetic grain bags while moisture losses occurred in the WPG.</p>
<p>In an economic analysis of maize storage technologies in Kenya, Kimenju and De Groote (2010) presented the results of six-month crop storage loss trials in comparing metal silos, HSTs, a common pesticide and a standard woven polypropylene bag as control. Standard polypropylene bags were found to have the highest loss (24%), compared to the HST (6.3%), and metal silos (0.5-1.7%). While metal silos are perhaps a more effective means of storage in-place, they are not portable and not practical financially for a subsistence farmer (World Bank, 2011). Kimenju and De Groote (2010) noted that metal silos would take in excess of ten years to recoup the investment, whereas HSTs have the benefit of a relatively low initial investment and high return-on-investment. In fact, hermetic sacks are being bartered in some communities throughout Africa, as they are viewed as a high value commodity (FAO, 2011). An HST, effectively implemented, benefits farmers by allowing them to control when they sell their grain, and preventing the surplus at the end of the harvest which diminishes commodity prices for all farmers (Kimenju and DeGroote, 2010).</p>
<p>The World Bank does note that construction of mud silos in areas that do not traditionally use them has been effective (World Bank, 2011). For example, in northern Ghana 1,000 mud silos were commissioned by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture and associated organizations. It was found that in these areas, mud silos were effective in increasing effective crop storage time and preventing pest access, accounting for only 6.5 percent of losses over the study period as compared to jute bags and traditional granary structures (World Bank, 2011). However, construction of these silos requires the availability of suitable timber, which is sparse, and maintenance of the silos in the long term casts doubt over the ability of these silos to continue to offer such benefits (World Bank, 2011). Also, food security issues have encouraged individuals to store grain in their homes (often in the bedroom), and HSTs are more suitable for this (World Bank, 2011).</p>
<p><i>Critical Analysis</i></P>
<p>Grain needs to be suitably dried before being hermetically stored. Weinburg (2008) found that it is possible to store higher moisture content grain in HST, however losses do occur; it is still preferable, where possible, to dry grain adequately. Therefore, high humidity climates might find limited use if no effective method for drying foods can be practiced. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) estimates that to effectively reduce spoilage of foods inside HSTs, grains need to be dried to less than 12-14% moisture content depending on species (IRRI, 2010).</p>
<p>An HST needs to be kept protected, as any punctures leading to air leakage will minimize the benefits of the technology. To protect the bag, manufacturers recommend placing the HST into an existing type of storage such as a jute bag or woven polypropylene bag. To check for leaks, manufacturers suggest gently fill the bag with air, tying the bag shut, and placing a light book or hand on top, while observing the bag to check for air loss.</p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">The Cowpea Bag</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>A variant of the HST is the Purdue Improved Cowpea Storage bag, which is a triple layer bag. It includes an outer protective layer and has been found to be quite effective in the protection of cowpea from a number of insects. Purdue maintains an extensive library of videos and information on their cowpea bag.</P>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Purchase</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) co-developed one of the leading HST technologies with GrainPro Inc. GrainPro maintains an international distribution network, which is easily accessed through their site.</P>
<P>Large commercial systems cost about $100-130 per tonne, with an expected product life-cycle of at least ten years. Smaller scale ‘Super Bags’ cost approximately $1-2 depending on the volume of order and shipping destination. If protected from physical damage, they have been confirmed to last six growing seasons or more.<P>
<P>The cowpea bag can be purchased by visiting the Purdue website and consulting region specific dealers.</P>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Practical tips</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The International Rice Research Institute recommends that the grain should be dried to 12-14% moisture content. The HST should be placed inside an existing woven polypropylene bag or jute bag to provide protection. After the HST is filled with dried grain, excess air should be removed. The top of the bag should be twisted and folded into two, then tied with an elastic band or tape. The protective outer bag should also be closed. A very helpful and beautifully illustrated PDF is available through Purdue with many tips and basics</P>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
<div class="cont-bg">
[[Image:9.4.webp|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.4:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.4latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
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<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">Further Information</h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<P>The International Rice Research Institute has excellent information on grain storage (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/rkb/grain-storage-systems.html), and detailed information on hermetic storage including practical tips (http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/rkb/grain-storage-systems/hermetic-storage-systems.html</p>
</div>
</div>
<div style="margin-top: 30px;">
<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>1. Ali, S., & Villers, P. (2002). Cocoons dramatically reduce pests in store. Appropriate Technology, 29(3), 20-20.</p>
<p>2. Baoua, I. B., Amadou, L., Margam, V., & Murdock, L. L. (2012). Performance of triple bagging hermetic technology for postharvest storage of cowpea grain in Niger. Journal of Stored Products Research, 51, 81-85.</p>
<p>3. Chen, S., Zhang, M., & Wang, S. (2011). Effect of initial hermetic sealing on quality of ‘Kyoho' grapes during storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology., 59(2), 194-199.</p>
<p>4. Edoh Ognakossan, K., Tounou, A. K., Lamboni, Y., & Hell, K. (2013). Post-harvest insect infestation in maize grain stored in woven polypropylene and in hermetic bags. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 33(1), 71-81.</p>
<p>5. IRRI Knowledgebank </p>
<p>6. Kimenju, S. and De Groote, H. (2010) Economic Analysis of Alternative Maize Storage Technologies in Kenya. Contributed Paper presented at the Joint 3rd African Association of Agricultural Economists (AAAE) and 48th Agricultural Economists Association of South Africa (AEASA) Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, September 19-23, 2010.</p>
<p>7. Johnson, J. A., & Zettler, J. L. (2009). Response of postharvest tree nut lepidopteran pests to vacuum treatments. Journal of Economic Entomology, 102(5), 2003-2010.</p>
<p>8. Weinberg, Z. G., Yan, Y., Chen, Y., Finkelman, S., Ashbell, G., & Navarro, S. (2008). The effect of moisture level on high-moisture maize (zea mays L.) under hermetic storage conditions-in vitro studies. Journal of Stored Products Research, 44 (2) Pp.136-144.</p>
<p>9. World Bank. (2011). Missing Food: The Case of Postharvest Grain Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank, Natural Resources Institute, and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1-116.</p>
</div>
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</div>

Seed-drying

2026-04-15T14:29:36Z

Mamta:

<div>
<div class="title"><h3>8.2 - Seed drying</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Emily Overholt, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
<div class="hero-img-2">
[[File:4.webp|300px]]

<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Well dried seed is good seed (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/well-dried-seed-good-seed?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p> Overholt,E. (2022) Seed drying. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction </h3>
<div class="cont-bg">
<p>The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations estimates that post-harvest crop losses in sub-Saharan Africa amount to 8% of the total annual cereal yield (Kaminski & Christiaensen, 2014). These foods also provide nourishment to pests including fungi, insects, and rodents which lead to post-harvest losses (Kaminski & Christianensen, 2014). Seed drying is a vital skill for farmers to possess, as seed moisture content and incidence of infestation/disease are positively correlated (Bam et al., 2007). Wet grain leads to fungal molds and is more palatable to pests. The moisture content of the air, also known as the relative humidity, is a combination of the air’s temperature and moisture content (FAO, 2016). In order for seeds to lose moisture, they must have a higher moisture content than the air around them, which makes it especially difficult to dry grain in the humid tropics (FAO, 2016). Seed size/porosity and wind speed are also important factors in determining the drying capacity of a grain. The intent behind writing this paper is to provide subsistence farmers with a toolkit to evaluate different seed drying methods according to their specific needs and capacities.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Methods</h3>
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<p>This section will provide a brief overview of different indigenous practices. Indigenous populations have long understood the importance of seed drying for food security (Taruvinga, Mejia, & Alvarez, 2014). Whilst indigenous drying practices can be sufficient in providing some communities with year-round access to grain, population growth and climate change are undermining the viability of these systems within certain contexts (Mrema et al., 2011). Population growth lends itself to land scarcity, which can cause farmers to reduce crop rotations, given their finite resources (Mrema et al, 2011). What results from this reduction in biodiversity is an increased incidence of pests/fungi which often prefer specific host plants (Mrema et al, 2011). Equally important, the increase in average global temperature is conducive to fungi and pests (Taruvinga et al, 2014). Indigenous post-harvest drying methods can be grouped into four categories: field drying, open air drying, semi-open storage drying, and heated air drying (Taruvinga et al, 2014).</p>
<p>With respect to field drying, crops can remain in the field following grain maturation for up to 5 days, as a pre-harvest drying method (Taruvinga et al, 2014). Open air drying often consists of leaving grains on wooden structures where they are directly exposed to the sun and wind (Taruvinga et al, 2014); although, grains are also frequently hung from trees/poles. These methods are often used in very hot/humid environments, as well as with recently-harvested grain (Taruvinga et al, 2014).</p>
<p>The third method, semi-open storage drying, involves the construction of "cribs", which generally consist of a combination of timber, reeds, and bamboo (Taruvinga et al, 2014). The cribs are supported by a foundation of stone or wood with baffles, to protect grain from rodents (Taruvinga et al, 2014); ideally, the crib should be located at least 90 cm from the ground (Taruvinga et al, 2014). The semi-open method is employed to dry both threshed and unthreshed grain (Taruvinga et al, 2014); whilst unthreshed grain is limited in its drying capacity by the protective case which surrounds it, but is better fortified against potential predators (Taruvinga et al, 2014). </p>
<p>A fourth option for drying seeds is by means of heated air from fire (Sutherland & Ghaly, 1982). Whilst fuel may not be abundant, subsistence farmers can overcome this problem by placing grain in close proximity or above the cooking area. The heated air increases the relative air humidity, thus lowering the EMC (Mreme et al, 2011). It is important that heated air-dried seeds are stirred regularly, to avoid damage and/or under-dehydration of seeds (Taruvinga et al, 2014). Only after seeds reach an acceptable moisture content, can they be stored in bancos (Taruvinga et al, 2014). This indigenous concept involves crafting a container using mud or woven branches, bamboo, and grass as a method of insulating seeds from EMC (Taruvinga et al, 2014).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Practice</h3>
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<p>The optimal drying method and duration of a given grain is contingent on the climatic conditions, as well as the structure of the grain itself (Kozanoglu et al., 2012). It should be noted within the parameters of constant relative humidity that an increase of 10 °C in temperature will cause an approximate 0.5 °C decrease in EMC (Mrema et al, 2011); it has been theorized that this decrease in EMC is the result of increased water pressure within the seed, lending to higher moisture mobility (Barozzo, Mujumdar, & Freire, 2014). Being that grains differ in their EMC at a constant temperature/relative humidity, one cannot adopt a homogenous approach toward grain drying. As Table 1 shows, there is significant variation in EMC between crops when analyzed at 27 °C and 70% relative humidity (FAO, 2016). In fact, the EMC of groundnuts is half that of maize, despite being dried under the same climatic conditions (FAO, 2016). In addition to the discrepancies in drying capacity, seeds also vary in their optimal storage moisture content. Table 2 shows the maximum moisture content recommended by FAO for short and long term storage of different grains. Close examination of this chart shows that there is more variation between crops than between drying durations (Mrema et al, 2011).</p>
<p>Although porosity and seed size do not directly affect the EMC, they do have an impact on the rate of drying; through their effects on surface area and diffusion can catalyze the drying process, or cause a major lag in it, leaving the crops vulnerable to disease/infestation (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Drying occurs on the grain surface and hence a greater seed surface to volume ratio results in faster drying of grain (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Due to the large surface area ratio found in smaller cereal grains, the initial rate of drying is must faster than large grain (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Although the larger grains are at an initial disadvantage, they typically surpass the drying rate of smaller seeds (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). This phenomena can be explained by the relatively high porosity found within larger seeds. Once an adequate amount of moisture has been depleted from seeds, pores catalyze the drying process, as they become conduits for airflow, and in doing so, increase the surface area to which air is exposed (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Figure 1 shows a simple formula which farmers can use to determine moisture content of their dried grains, using only a scale and calculator. Once informed of their grain's moisture content, a farmer can begin to consider the different factors which influence drying technique and duration.<p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Application of drying methods</h3>
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<p>As crops differ in their chemical compositions, they also differ in their relative vulnerabilities to different threats. Table 3 summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of maize, beans, groundnuts, and rice; all of which are grown in Africa. Maize, for instance, is less likely to require heated-air drying than beans, based on its ability to dry in the field, as well as its superior resistance to insects and pathogens. Good management strategies should also consider the effects of different drying practices on the overall quality of the seed. Over drying and exposure to high temperatures can have an adverse impact on the quality of a seed, as well as its germination rate. Excessive temperatures can lead to an increase in internal air pressure of a seed, and lead to external damage (FAO, 2016). Furthermore, essential proteins, sugars, and glutens can be altered by extreme temperatures, leading to nutrient deficiencies in the seeds (FAO, 2016). The standard safe seed drying temperature for oilseed grains is 43 °C (FAO, 2016); although, Tables 4 and 5 exemplify the drastic variation in heat tolerance of different grains (Sutherland & Ghaly, 1982). Overheating can also affect flavor and color of the products which will reduce their market price (Sutherland & Ghaly, 1982).</p>
<p>External factors that may influence the drying capacity of seeds, as well as their quality, include the cleanliness of seeds as well as the material on which they are dried. One study comparing the effectiveness of corrugated iron, cement, and wooden surfaces in promoting cowpea germination found that wood was superior for preventing pest infestation, and also had the highest rate of germination between the three (Ugwu et al., 1999). It has been suggested that the cleanliness of grain is an important determinant in the drying rate, given that these particles situate themselves within pores, and prevent full aeration (FAO, 2016). Rigorous cleaning should be undertaken in order to prevent this phenomenon, as well as reduce the risk of seed contamination (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Caution should be taken during the cleaning process, as moisture-depleted seeds are more susceptible to compaction, which can limit porosity (Kozanoglu et al, 2012). Hopefully by now the reader has concluded that seed drying requires a complex management program as it is influenced by multiple factors. Figure 2 compares temperature with germination rate, insect activity, and fungal presence, in order to determine the safe drying temperature for most grain seeds (Mrema et al, 2011).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Critical evaluation</h3>
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<p>While heated air drying can have a critical impact on poverty reduction, it is important that farmers do not over rely on this method. Farmers may be incentivized to over-use heat drying, because it lends itself to quick drying, and therefore, readily available products to sell at market. While one could debate the finite nature of fuel resources, it can be said that population pressure will continue to increase demand for them, and lead to scarcity (as it already has in countries such as Ghana which suffer from significant deforestation). It is important to utilize other indigenous methods when possible, not only for their eco-benefits, but also to ensure their survival.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Effects of drying on profit/production</h3>
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<p>Different methods of seed drying can affect production through their labor and resource requirements. While in-field seed drying can increase available drying time, it also hinders the ability of farmers to engage in crop rotation, as growing seasons for staple crops are often finite (Taruvinga et al, 2014). Heat-drying seeds can be time consuming, as the temperature must be monitored and seeds must be constantly stirred. Semi-open grain storage can be labor intensive, as cribs must be built to house the grain. It seems reasonable to suggest that there is a positive correlation between initial seed moisture content and required labor inputs in the drying process. That being said, farmers choose to grow lower maintenance crops (in terms of drying) such as maize, rather than focus on growing the components of a balanced diet. Although there are no simple answers in the world of seed drying, one thing is certain: improved access to drying resources is a crucial component in bringing about food security. Seed drying allows farmers to maintain grain reserves throughout the year, which serves a two fold purpose: not only do farmers maintain a buffer against famine, they also receive a higher market value for grain during non-growing seasons.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
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[[Image:9.2 image1.webp|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.2_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.2e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.2subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.2latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For North Africa And Middle East version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson Chapter 5. 8.2:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/8.2n._africa_middleeast.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and LJ Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers: eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada. Available online at: www.SAKBooks.com</i></p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Additional resources</h3>
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<p>https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdfhttps://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>

<p>• http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3769e.pdf\</p>

<p>• http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e10.pdf</p>

<p>• http://www.fao.org/docrep/T1838E/T1838E00.htmlhttps://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433/i/i2433e.pdf</p>

<p>• https://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433/i/i2433e.pdf</p>
<p><b>Appendix</b></p>
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<p>M2 = 100 - [W1 (100 - M1)/W2]</p>
<p>W1 = weight of undried grain (kg)</p>
<p>W2 = weight of dried grain (kg)</p>
<p>M1 = moisture content of undried grain (%)</p>
<p>M2 = moisture content of dried grain (%)</p>
<p><b>Figure 1:</b></p> Equation for determining moisture content of dried seeds. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e.pdf </p>
<p><b>Table 3:</b></p> Recommended drying practices of different crops. Retrieved from:http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e.pdf </p>
<p>[[File:Capture_118.webp]]</p>
<p><b>Table 4:</b></p> Impact of drying temperature on germination rates of sunflower seeds. Retrieved from:http://www.sciencedirect.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/0022474X82900029</p>
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<p>Table 5: impact of drying temperature on germination rate of rapeseeds. Retrieved from: http://www.sciencedirect.com.subzero.lib.uoguelph.ca/science/article/pii/0022474X82900029</p>
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<p><b>Figure 2:</b></p> Optimal seed drying conditions. Retrieved from: https://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e.pdf</p>
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<p><b>Table 6:</b></p> “Approximate” allowable storage time (days) for cereal grains. Replicated using information from https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>
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<p>*Approximate storage time exceeds 300 days. The columns are categorized according to storage temperature, and the rows according to moisture content of seeds after drying.</p>
<p>-https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>
<p>-https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1. Bam, R. K., Craufurd, P. U., Dorward, P. T., Asiedu, E. A., Kumuga, F. K., & Ofori, K. (2007). Introducing improved cultivars: Understanding farmers seed drying and storage practices in Central Ghana. Expl Agric, 43, 301-317, doi :10.1017/S001447970700498X</p>

<p>2. Barozzo, M. A. S., Mujumdar, A., & Freire, J. T. (2014). Air-drying of seeds: A review. Drying Technology, 32, DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2014.915220</p>

<p>3. Hellevang, K. J. (1993). Natural air/low temperature crop drying. NDSU Extension Service.Retrieved from: https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/graindrying/documents/eb35.pdf</p>

<p>4. Kaminski, J. & Christiaensen. (2014). Post harvest loss in sub-Saharan Africa-what do farmers say? Global Food Security, 3, 149-158, DOI: 10.1016/j.gfs.2014.10.002</p>

<p>5. Kozanoglu, B., Martinez J., Alvarez, S., Guerrero-Beltrán, J. A., & Welti-Chanes, J. (2012) Influence of Particle Size on Vacuum–Fluidized Bed Drying. Drying Technology, 30 (2), 138 – 145, DOI:10.1080/07373937.2011.628427.</p>

<p>6. Mrema, G. C., Gumbe, L. O., Chepete, H. J., & Agullo, J. O. (2011). Rural Structures within the tropics: Design and development. FAO, Rome, Chapter 16. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2433e/i2433e10.pdf.</p>

<p>7. Proctor, D. L. (1994). Grain storage techniques: Evolution and trends in developing countries. FAO Rome, Chapter 5.Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/T1838E/T1838E00.html</p>

<p>8. Sutherland, J. W. & Ghaly, T. F. (1982). Heated air drying of soil seeds. J Stored Prod Res, 18, 53-54.</p>
<p>9. Taruvinga, C., Mejia, D., & Alvarez, J. S. (2014). Appropriate seed and grain drying systems for small scale farmers. A Field Guide for Disaster Risk Reduction in Southern Africa: Key Practices for DRR Implementer, FAO. Retrieved from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3769e.pdf</p>

<p>10. Ugwu, F. M., Ekwu, F. C., & Abo, J. (1999). Effect of different sun-drying surfaces on the functional properties, cooking, and insect infestation of cowpea seeds. Bioresource Technology, 69, 87-90.</p>
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Neem-to-combat-pests-during-grain-storage-and-the-field

2026-04-15T13:03:16Z

Mamta:

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<div class="title"><h3>8.3 - Neem to combat pests during grain storage and the field</h3><br><h3 class="ch-owner">Gryphon Theriault-Loubier, University of Guelph, Canada</h3></div>
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<p><b>Related video(s)</b>: Neem seed kernel extract (Source: Access Agriculture)</p>
<p><i> https://www.accessagriculture.org/neem-seed-kernel-extract?cat_id=1499</i></p>

<p>Suggested citation for this chapter.</p>
<p>Theriault-Loubier,G(2022) Neem to combat pests during grain storage and the field. In Farmpedia, The Encyclopedia for Small Scale Farmers. Editor, M.N. Raizada, University of Guelph, Canada. http://www.farmpedia.org</p>
<h3 class="title-bg">Introduction</h3>
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<p>Neem (Azadirachta indica) is a fast growing, drought tolerant deciduous, evergreen tree of Indo-Malay origin but now widely grown throughout the tropics and subtropics including in Africa (World Agroforestry Centre, 2011). Neem leaves and fruit have been in use since pre-history for a variety of purposes including ethnobotanical, medicinal, cultural and agricultural (Jamir, 1999; Harbant, & Mohamed, 2012). The plant or its extracts can be used as a multi-functional natural pesticide, for example as a seed coating to maintaining food quality during storage (Nisar, 2009), as a spray on field crops (Baidoo, 2012), and even as an adjunct prophylactic (preventative medicine) in aquaculture (Kumar, 2013). Neem can be used as an effect biopesticide in tropical vegetable gardens (e.g. kale and cabbage in Thailand) which often use large amounts of commercial pesticides (Tran 2003). The functionality of neem is due to some 35 active ingredients, among which are anti-feedants, deterrents, growth and reproduction limiting (sterility) compounds. Azadirachtin (Fig.1),</p>
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<p>a complex terpenoid, is widely considered to be the most active insecticidal ingredient (Schmutterer, 1990). While the seeds have the highest concentration of azadirachtin, the fruit, leaves and bark also contain the compound (Bramachari, 2004). </p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Use of Neem as a Field Spray</h3>
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<p>Neem extracts can be used as a bio-pesticide spray for field crops. Bramachari reported that neem has been found to be effective against 413 different species of insects in 16 different insect orders including beetles, caterpillars, aphids, leafhoppers, leaf miners, psyllids, thrips, mealy bugs and whiteflies. Research has shown some efficacy in application to mite species (V. jacobsoni) that commonly infest honey bee hives (Melathopoulos et al., 2000). Baidoo (2012) found that neem extract significantly reduced the population of cabbage pests, and increased cabbage weight (See Critical Analysis).
Neem is particularly effective at the juvenile insect stage, as it disrupts a common insect hormone ecdysone, preventing moulting. As a result, the larvae remain in an immature stage and die (Bramachari, 2005). Therefore, the extract works best on the second generation of insects and a delayed response in the field is a common observation, and this should be explained to farmers in advance to prevent disappointment (Schmutterer 1990). Similarily, food products which require a high visual quality or do not recover from insect feeding might not be best suited for neem compounds (Schmutterer 1990).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Use of Neem to Prevent Food Storage Losses </h3>
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<p>The pesticidal property of azadirachtin means an extract of the seed or pulverized seed powder can be applied to jute bags for storage of grain, and can serve doubly as an insect deterrent; alternatively neem leaves are sometimes directly added to grain storage bags (Melathopoulous, 2000, Brahmachari 2004).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Possible Benefits</h3>
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<p>The neem tree is exceptionally hardy – suitable growing conditions include those that experience >400 mm rainfall, extended drought and poor soil, including saline (salty) soils (Schmutterer 1990). Obara (2004) describes the potential of Kenyan neem trees as a supply of excellent quality carving wood. It is considered highly desirable for this purpose as it is easy to work with has an aesthetically pleasing grain. While this is a benefit on the side of productivity, it should be considered that in areas of limited wood supply, these trees might need protection from poachers (Obara, 2004).</p>
<p>Extract of the neem tree has the potential to reduce reliance on commercial pesticides. Neem extract has the potential to be a low cost, long-term solution that may reverse conventional income flow from farmer to input manufacturer (Tran, 2003). Neem has potential as a small-medium local business enterprise, and the reader is encouraged to read Tran (2003) who has explored this subject. There may be significant market demand for the product in the future given the wealth of research and possible applications of neem compounds, including as a treatment for dengue fever, as a contraceptive and analgesic, and for rheumatism (Bramachari, 2004).</p>
<p>In terms of environmental impact, neem has been reported to disturb aquatic life at lower rates than many synthetic pesticides since it degrades rather quickly (36-48 hrs) following application if exposed to sunlight (Scott, 2003). While aquatic invertebrates were unharmed at full agricultural applicable concentrations of neem, some benthic (bottom feeding) populations were disturbed (Scott, 2003).</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Critical Analysis</h3>
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<p><b>Tree propagation time:</b></p> Neem is propagated from seeds (see below). It is estimated that approximately 10 years (minimum) of growth is required for a tree to produce ~10 kg of fruit, of which only a portion is neem kernel (Schmutterer 1990). Development projects may find this to be outside of their project timelines. Therefore, trees must be locally pre-existing or a long-term plantation program must be implemented. There may also be regulations on importing neem seed if not locally available (see below).</p>
<p>Spraying frequency: Schmutterer (1990) states that neem compounds are generally less effective in the short-term than synthetic commercial alternatives. While ecologically beneficial, the relatively short half-life of 36-48 hours is a practical challenge, meaning that the compound will need reapplication every 5-7 days. However, it is noted that some conventional pesticides also have similar application requirements (Schmutterer 1990).</p>
<p>Impact on plant growth: While Baidoo (2012) noticed increased cabbage weight as a result of neem spraying, Egho (2011) noted delayed development of the cowpea plant at 5% neem extract concentration.</p>
<p>Impact on human health: Though neem extracts are generally considered to be safe by advocates, Bramachari (2004) found that there were some human health concerns related to neem application. Toxicity in mammals from neem has been reported at relatively high dosages (Bramachari, 2004). Long-term controlled studies do not appear to have been conducted, and hence the possible effects of prolonged exposure to low doses of neem extract are not clear. As with any effective pesticide, safety equipment is preferable, but according to Raizada (2001), this may not be necessary after the neem extract has dried.</p>
<p>Environmental impact: As neem is a wide spectrum pesticide (Bramachari), it may harm beneficial insects. Prolonged over-spraying of neem extract may also lead to insect resistance, and hence neem should be incorporated into integrated pest management (IPM) programs that promote good ecology to reduce pests (e.g. crop rotations) (Appropriate Technology, 2006).</p>
<p><b>Patent rights:</b></p> An ongoing legal battle exists between W. R. Grace & Co. and advocate Jeremy Rifkin. W.R. Grace has patented a method of extracting an active ingredient from neem for use in commercial pesticides, whereas Rifkin contends that the traditional use of neem means that such a technology cannot be patented (Wolfgang, 1995).</P>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How to make the extract: Small-Scale Production (Neem Foundation) </h3>
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<p>Preparing Neem Kernel Extract: The process for making a neem kernel extract is relatively simple. Following harvesting, neem kernels are ground, then the powder is usually gathered in a simple muslin cloth pouch and soaked overnight in water. The next morning, the pouch is squeezed to remove as much of the extract as possible. The ratio for an effective concentration of compounds is 50 g of neem kernel to 1 L of water. To increase surface area and decrease the time necessary for extraction, the outer coat of the neem kernel is removed, and the kernel is pounded gently. Some reports indicate that the outer coat is an effective addition to fertilizer. If the means do not exist locally to remove the seed coat, the ratio of the extract from (intact) neem kernels should be increased to 75 g per 1 L of water. The age of the neem kernels after harvesting is important; the seeds should be at least 3 months in age, and no older than 8 months to assure maximum azadirachtin content. For purposes of application onto leaves, an emulsifier is usually added, such as soap oil, soap cake powder, sandovit, or teepol, which are sometimes sold commercially. An emulsifier assists the active compounds in sticking to the leaves that will receive application.</p>
<p>Preparing Neem Leaf Extract: The concentrations of the active compounds are highest in neem kernels, but they are also present in the leaves (Bramachari, 2004). It is estimated that for 1 ha of land, nearly 80 kg of leaves would be required which is substantial. For practical purposes, it is therefore suggested that neem leaf extract should be applied to seedlings in nurseries and kitchen gardens. The process of making the leaf extract is nearly the same as producing the seed extract: the leaves are soaked overnight, then the next day the leaves are ground and the extract is filtered: 1 kg of green neem leaf is required per 5 L of water. As above, an emulsifier is added to facilitate better adhesion to applied leaf surfaces.</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">How to Spray Neem Extract or Commercial Neem Oil</h3>
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<p>As the active compounds break down fastest in extended bright light, the compound should be applied in the evening or very early morning. During high temperatures, the frequency of spraying should be increased. Since the compound is washed away by water, daily spraying is recommended in the rainy season. As insects lay eggs on the underside of the leaves, it is important to spray neem extract on the underside of the leaves. Optimally, each acre of land can be sprayed with approximately 60 L of ready-to-use solution (see below).</p>
<p>As an alternative, neem oil can be purchased commercially. To apply onto crops or seeds, 30 ml of neem oil is added to 1 L of water, along with an emulsifier. The resultant product needs to be mixed thoroughly and applied before oil droplets start floating on the water surface. Backpack sprayers have been found to be more effective than hand sprayers as they often have a built-in mixing agitation technology.</p>
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<h1 class="title-bg">Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmers</h1>
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[[Image:9.3.webp|thumb|centre|Picture Based Lesson to Train Farmer|Click on the image to access a higher resolution image as well as lessons adapted for different geographic regions.]]</p>
<p><i>For the South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.3_south_asian.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the East/South Asian version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.3e.s.a.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Sub-Saharan Africa/Caribbean version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.3subsaharan_africa_carribean.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>For the Latin-America version (pictures only, text for you to insert), click this link for lesson 9.3:http://www.sakbooks.com/uploads/8/1/5/7/81574912/9.3latin_america.pdf</i></p>
<p><i>Source: MN Raizada and L Smith (2016) A Picture Book of Best Practices for Subsistence Farmers. eBook, University of Guelph Sustainable Agriculture Kit (SAK) Project, June 2016, Guelph, Canada.</i></p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">Further Information</h3>
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<p><i>Sources of seed and information on propagating neem trees</i>
<p>The trees are typically planted from seed. In India, there are commercial suppliers of neem seed including JDG Seeds which sell neem seeds for $1.10 USD per kg. Please refer to the Tree Seed Supplier Directory on the website of the World Agroforestry Center for local suppliers of neem seeds.</p>
<p>The Neem Foundation states that: “The seeds should be as fresh as possible as older seeds often do not germinate. Provided that only a few trees are to be planted, and there is sufficient moisture available, with minimum weeds, the seeds may be sown directly into the ground. Two to three seeds are placed together about 1 cm deep in loose soil. After germination, only the strongest plant should be retained. When planting a large number, it is advisable to cultivate young plants first in pots, trays or plastic bags. After 3 months, they should be transplanted into the ground. When using bags or pots care should be taken that the plants are not allowed to develop to a stage where the taproot has pierced the bottom and has to be shortened before transplantation. This weakens the trees and substantially slows their growth.”</p>
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<h3 class="title-bg">References </h3>
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<p>1. Adarkwah, C., et al. "Bio-Rational Control of Red Flour Beetle Tribolium Castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in Stored Wheat with Calneem Registered Oil Derived from Neem Seeds." Journal of Pest Science 83.4 (2010): 471-9.</p>
<p>2. Baidoo, P. K., and J. I. Adam. "The Effects of Extracts of Lantana Camara (L.) and Azadirachta Indica (A. Juss) on the Population Dynamics of Plutella Xylostella, Brevicoryne Brassicae and Hellula Undalis on Cabbage." Sustainable Agriculture Research 1.2 (2012): 229-34</p>
<p>3. Bramachari, Goutam. (2005). Neem – An omnipotent Plant: A retrospection. ChemBioChem 2005(4), 408 – 421.</p>
<p>4. Egho, E. O., and E. M. Ilondu. "Seeds of Neem Tree (Azadirachta Indica A. Juss). Promising Biopesticide in the Management of Cowpea Insect Pests and Grain Yield in the Early Cropping Season at Asaba and Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria." Journal of Agricultural Science 4.1 (2012): 181-9.</p>
<p>5. Harbant, & Mohamed. (2012). Evaluating eco-friendly botanicals (natural plant extracts) as alternatives to synthetic fungicides. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine : AAEM, 19(4), 673-676.</p>
<p>6. Hummel, H., Hein, D.F., and Schmutterer (2012). The Coming of Age of Azadirachtins. Journal of biopesticides, 5(sup.) 82.</p>
<p>7. Isman, Murray B., Saber Miresmailli, and Cristina MacHial. "Commercial Opportunities for Pesticides Based on Plant Essential Oils in Agriculture, Industry and Consumer Products." Phytochemistry Reviews 10.2 (2011): 197-204. Biological Sciences.</p>
<p>8. Kumar, S., Raman, R. P., Pandey, P. K., Mohanty, S., Kumar, A., & Kumar, K. (2013). Effect of orally administered azadirachtin on non-specific immune parameters of goldfish carassius auratus (linn. 1758) and resistance against aeromonas hydrophila. Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 34(2), 564-573.</p>
<p>9. Melathopoulos, A. P., Winston, M. L., Whittington, R., Smith, T., Lindberg, C., Mukai, A., & Moore, M. (2000). Comparative laboratory toxicity of neem pesticides to honey bees(hymenoptera: Apidae), their mite parasites varroa jacobsoni(acari: Varroidae) and acarapis woodi (acari: Tarsonemidae), andBrood pathogens paenibacillus larvae and ascophaera apis. Journal of Economic Entomology, 93(2), 199-209.</p>
<p>10. Neem: The bitter truth. (2006). Appropriate Technology, 33(3), 29-29.</p>
<p>11. Nisar, K., et al. "Pesticidal Seed Coats Based on Azadirachtin-A: Release Kinetics, Storage Life and Performance." Pest Management Science, 65 (2) pp.175-182, 2009 (2009)Biological Sciences</p>
<p>12. Obara, A. O., Hoeft, M. G., & Hoeft, R. (2004). Neem, azadirachta indica A. juss. (meliaceae), and its potentialfor sustainable woodcarving in kenya. Economic Botany, 58(1), 98-111.</p>
<p>13. R. B. Raizada, M. K. Srivastava, R. A. Kaushala, R. P. Singh, Food Chem. Toxicol. 2001, 39(5), 477 ± 483.</p>
<p>14. Scott, I. M., and N. K. Kaushik. "The Toxicity of a Neem Insecticide to Populations of Culicidae and Other Aquatic Invertebrates as Assessed in in Situ Microcosms." Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 39.3 (2000): 329-36. Biological Sciences; Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management.</p>
<p>15. Schmutterer, H. (1990.) Properties and Potential of the Natural Pesticides from the Neem Tree, Azadirachta Indica. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 1990. 35:271-97.</p>
<p>16. Tran, V. M., & Perry, J. A. (2003). Challenges to using neem (azadirachta indica var. SianensisValenton) in thailand. Economic Botany, 57(1), 93-102.</p>
<p>17. T, T. Jamir, K. Sharma H, and K. Dolui A. "Folklore Medicinal Plants of Nagaland, India." Fitoterapia 70.4 (1999): 395-.ProQuest Agriculture Journals</p>
<p>18. Wolfgang, Lori. "Patents on Native Technology Challenged." Science 269.5230 (1995): 1506-. ProQuest Agriculture Journals.</p>
<p>19. World Agroforestry Centre (2011). A tree species reference and selection guide: Azadirachta indica. Available online at < http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/products/afdbases/af/asp/SpeciesInfo.asp?SpID=271></p>
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